Biting the Hand that Feeds You: Attacks by Captive Carnivores Cause Deaths and Injuries in South Africa

INTRODUCTION South Africa has substantial and growing populations of captive large carnivores with about 7979 captive lions (Panthera leo) (Creecy, 2019) and 600 captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) (Van der Merwe et al., 2016) as well as other big cats like tigers (Panthera tigris). No conservation planning processes have identified captive breeding as a requirement for the conservation of these species in the wild (Funston & Levendal, 2015; Miller et al., 2016; Van der Merwe et al., 2016) and it is widely recognized that captive-bred animals are not necessary or even appropriate for species restoration (Hunter et al., 2013). For many of these facilities, income is derived from captive wildlife tourism (Moorhouse, D’Cruze & Macdonald, 2017) in the form of visiting facilities, touch and interaction programmes, as well as voluntourism (Coals et al., 2019). A substantial commodity chain for the commercial trade in lions has been identified with three distinct sectors currently involved, namely the captive trophy hunting industry, non-consumptive tourism and volunteering sector, and the international trade of lion bones to Southeast Asia for the traditional medicine industry, with the potential for lions to move between these sectors (Green, Jakins, de Waal & D’Cruze, 2021). Wildlife tourism has a huge potential to benefit local livelihoods, create jobs, build awareness and promote conservation; however, there can also be negative welfare and conservation impacts (Moorhouse et al., 2015), particularly around captive wildlife. There are several well-documented concerns about the captive carnivore industry in South Africa including issues such as: welfare of the animals held within this industry (Green et al., 2022; Wilson & Phillips, 2021), transfer of zoonotic diseases (Green et al., 2020), hunting of captive lions and the resulting impact on wild lion populations (Lindsey, Balme, Midlane, Alexander & Craig, 2012), laundering of wild cheetahs through captive facilities (SANBI, 2019), management and implications of trade in lion parts (Williams, Loveridge, Newton & Macdonald, 2017) and potential reputational damage to Brand South Africa (Harvey, 2020). However, little attention has been given to aspects of human safety in captive wildlife facilities. In South Africa, there is no legal requirement for holding any kind of qualification before being permitted to own or work with captive large carnivores (Wilson & Phillips, 2021).There is no legislation governing how staff and tourists interact with captive predators to ensure the safety of both animals and humans and there are no national norms and standards or industry best practice protocols to ensure safe interactions (SATSA, 2019). In contrast, to conduct walking safaris with tourists in Big 5 wildlife areas, a Professional Trails Guide Certificate is required, which is obtained through the Field Guides Association of Southern Africa (FGASA) and accredited by the Tourism and Hospitality and Sport Education Training Authority (CATHSSETA). This certificate involves intensive training, including 600 hours of experience, 300 Big 5 dangerous game encounters, advanced rifle handling skills and first aid qualifications (FGASA, 2019). In the wild, animals pose very little threat to tourists and hence deaths and injuries are uncommon and usually related to human error (Durrheim & Leggat, 1999). However, attacks on people by captive wild animals, particularly large carnivores, are becoming more prevalent and concerning. Unlike domesticated pets that have lived in close alliance with humans for thousands of years, no matter whether large carnivores have been handraised and habituated, they remain wild with strong prey-drive and territorial instincts (Shepherd, Mills, & Shoff, 2014). Media reports frequently capture information on captive large carnivores attacking people, and with the advent of social media, these have become more accessible in recent years. Given that there is no legal requirement to report attacks of captive carnivores to authorities in South Africa, media and informal reports are currentl y the most reliable sources of information.