音色分析的文化意义

IF 0.4 2区 艺术学 0 MUSIC Music Theory Online Pub Date : 2020-09-01 DOI:10.30535/MTO.26.3.3
Megan L. Lavengood
{"title":"音色分析的文化意义","authors":"Megan L. Lavengood","doi":"10.30535/MTO.26.3.3","DOIUrl":null,"url":null,"abstract":"This article is in three interrelated parts. In Part 1, I present a methodology for analyzing timbre that combines spectrogram analysis and cultural analysis. I define a number of acoustic timbral a ributes to which one may a une when analyzing timbre, organized as oppositional pairs of marked and unmarked terms, in order to both aid in spectrogram analysis and account for some of this cultural and perceptual work. In Part 2, building from Allan Moore’s definition of four functional layers in pop texture, I argue for the adoption of a fifth layer, which I term the novelty layer. I study its construction in 1980s hit singles via the Yamaha DX7 synthesizer. The novelty layer is imbued with several layers of semiotic significance: it functions in opposition to the melodic layer, comprises instruments whose timbral characteristics are more resistant to blending with the rest of the ensemble, and often uses “world instruments” in 1980s popular music. This la er point is a reflection of the problematic treatment of world music by 1980s music culture. I use my approach to timbre analysis to define the timbral norms for the novelty layer as opposed to Moore’s other layers. In Part 3, I create a dialogic narrative analysis of “Do They Know It’s Christmas?” by Band Aid (1984) that demonstrates what it might mean to transgress these norms. This analysis, in acknowledging the problematic cultural associations of the song, illustrates the rich discourse that can be produced when timbre is made central to the analytical process. Volume 26, Number 3, September 2020 Copyright © 2020 Society for Music Theory [0.1] Example 1 is a transcription of the prechorus and chorus of “What’s Love Got to Do with It” by Tina Turner, which reached #1 in the US in September 1984 and #3 in the UK in June 1984. To describe the texture of “What’s Love Got to Do with It,” the instruments can be understood using Allan Moore’s (2012) concept of four functional layers present in pop textures: the explicit beat layer, the functional bass layer, the melodic layer, and the harmonic filler layer. Tina Turner’s voice is the melody layer, which carries the main melody and lyrics.(1) The explicit beat layer and functional bass layer are found, as expected, in the drum set, which plays a basic rock beat, and in the bass line, which plays chord roots in slow, predictable rhythms before switching to a more linear bass in the reggae-tinged chorus, respectively. These two functional layers, according to Moore, work together to provide the “groove” of a pop song. The harmonic filler layer, which Moore defines as the layer whose function is “to fill the ‘registral’ space between [the functional bass and melody] layers,” is made up of the guitar, which plays strictly chordal accompanimental figures; one DX7 preset, . 1, which, like the guitar, plays chordal accompaniment; and the strings, which thicken this core texture. [0.2] Having exhausted Moore’s four functional layers, I have left one instrument uncategorized: the 1 synthesizer sound. The musical content of this instrument is far less predictable than the other instruments, adding syncopated melodic interjections sporadically throughout the introduction. I suspect Moore would categorize this as belonging to the melody layer, and specifically as a “secondary melodic line” (2012, 20). But to me, this obscures the most interesting feature of the 1 line: its distinct timbre, which sets it apart from the typical rock texture. How might an analyst acknowledge the way that timbre contributes to texture in this way? [0.3] In this article, I present a methodology for analyzing timbre that combines spectrogram analysis and cultural analysis. To show how this methodology can be productively implemented, I expand Moore’s system by adding a fifth functional layer, which I term the novelty layer. Using my approach to timbre analysis, I find that the novelty layer is imbued with several layers of semiotic significance: it functions in opposition to the melodic layer, it comprises instruments whose timbral characteristics are more resistant to blending with the rest of the ensemble, and it is the most typical place to find “world instruments” in 1980s popular music. This allows me to construct a narrative through the analysis of timbre and texture. [0.4] Spectrogram analysis first became popular among music theorists in the late 1970s, when computing became more accessible to academics. A sma ering of books on timbre analysis using spectrograms was released between 1975 and 1985 (Erickson 1975; Cogan 1984; Slawson 1985), yet spectrogram analysis never became a mainstream analytical tool in music theory. One possible reason for this is what a spectrogram does not show: the significant role that perception plays in the experience of timbre, as articulated by Cornelia Fales in her foundational article “The Paradox of Timbre” (2002) and reinforced by the studies of other recent timbre scholars (Blake 2012; Heidemann 2014; Lavengood 2019).(2) I define a number of acoustic timbral a ributes to which one may a une when analyzing timbre in order to both aid spectrogram analysis and account for some of this cultural and perceptual work. But identification of these a ributes alone does not produce a stimulating analysis; this simply lays the groundwork for an engaging interpretation of a musical work. [0.5] In order to more securely a ach the spectrogram’s acoustic data to human experience, I have built my vocabulary for spectrogram analysis upon the notion of markedness, popularized in music studies by Robert Ha en (1994), as a way of analyzing the cultural associations that arise during the perceptual processing of timbral a ributes. Put succinctly, markedness is the significance given to difference, often between two opposed terms. In Part 1, I will describe my methodology in detail, showing how spectrograms and consideration of markedness can aid analysts in creating timbre analyses. Part 1 is designed to establish a flexible theory for the analysis of timbre that could be applied to a wide range of repertoires and purposes, and thus the tools I describe there are not limited to those that would apply to the analyses in this article. In this sense, Part 1 almost functions as a manual or glossary for timbre analysis. [0.6] My music analyses are in Parts 2 and 3 of this article. These two parts present analytical case studies that further develop Moore’s functional layers and my novelty layer as constructed in hit 1980s singles by the Yamaha DX7 synthesizer, an immensely popular synthesizer that helped define the sound of the 1980s. I ask readers to remember that Moore and I do not define functional layers by their timbral properties, but rather by the way the sounds are used in the track—that is, by their instrumentational role. Timbre and texture are not made equivalent in this essay, and the functional layers are descriptions of textural function rather than an assessment of timbral quality. However, by tracking the use of Yamaha DX7 presets in a number of mid-’80s hits and identifying their principal functional layers, I assess the levels of markedness within each layer to establish the timbral norms for each—norms which are particular to this idiom of 1980s mainstream popular music. I find that all DX7 presets used in the functional bass, melody, and harmonic filler layers have something in common: they have unmarked timbral characteristics that allow different instruments to blend into a texture. DX7 presets in the novelty layer, by contrast, have marked timbral features that encourage these instruments to stand out. In other words, I will show that in mainstream pop and rock music in the 1980s, the ideal for the instruments composing the former three layers (I refer to this combination as “core sounds” or “core layers”) is to blend with each other; for the novelty instruments, not to blend at all. [0.7] Part 3 concludes the article by using timbral norms to create a dialogic narrative analysis of “Do They Know It’s Christmas?” by Band Aid (1984) as an example of what it might mean to transgress the timbral norms established in Part 2. This analysis, in acknowledging the problematic cultural associations of the song, illustrates the rich discourse that can be produced when timbre is made central to the analytical process. 1. Methodology for Visual Spectrogram Analysis [1.1] With free software such as Audacity or Sonic Visualiser, anyone with access to a computer may easily view a kind of visual transcription of the timbre of any recorded sound.(3) A spectrogram charts frequency on the y-axis and time on the x-axis, while showing amplitude with changes in color as a type of z-axis (Video Example 1). This visualizes in three dimensions the relative weighting of the energy distribution within a given frequency range and provides a visual representation of most of the elements that define a timbre.(4) Put another way, a spectrogram shows the amplitude of all the frequencies present in a sound signal and the way those amplitudes and frequencies change through time. This spectrogram shows not only the fundamental pitch, but also all the overtones that the ear combines into a single tone with a unique timbre. [1.2] Another visual representation of timbre is called a spectrum plot (Example 2). In a spectrum plot, frequency is charted on the x-axis and amplitude on the y-axis, which provide two advantages over spectrograms: one, they are easier to read when showing a single moment of time, and two, they are useful for calculating exact differences in amplitude between various partials. The drawback is that spectrum plots do not show changes in timbre through time.(5) I detail some situations in which spectrum plots are particularly helpful when I define my oppositions. [1.3] Spectrograms may at first appear to have an overwhelming amount of information, so I have built into my methodology a vocabulary for describing timbral a ribute","PeriodicalId":44918,"journal":{"name":"Music Theory Online","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.4000,"publicationDate":"2020-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":"2","resultStr":"{\"title\":\"The Cultural Significance of Timbre Analysis\",\"authors\":\"Megan L. Lavengood\",\"doi\":\"10.30535/MTO.26.3.3\",\"DOIUrl\":null,\"url\":null,\"abstract\":\"This article is in three interrelated parts. In Part 1, I present a methodology for analyzing timbre that combines spectrogram analysis and cultural analysis. I define a number of acoustic timbral a ributes to which one may a une when analyzing timbre, organized as oppositional pairs of marked and unmarked terms, in order to both aid in spectrogram analysis and account for some of this cultural and perceptual work. In Part 2, building from Allan Moore’s definition of four functional layers in pop texture, I argue for the adoption of a fifth layer, which I term the novelty layer. I study its construction in 1980s hit singles via the Yamaha DX7 synthesizer. The novelty layer is imbued with several layers of semiotic significance: it functions in opposition to the melodic layer, comprises instruments whose timbral characteristics are more resistant to blending with the rest of the ensemble, and often uses “world instruments” in 1980s popular music. This la er point is a reflection of the problematic treatment of world music by 1980s music culture. I use my approach to timbre analysis to define the timbral norms for the novelty layer as opposed to Moore’s other layers. In Part 3, I create a dialogic narrative analysis of “Do They Know It’s Christmas?” by Band Aid (1984) that demonstrates what it might mean to transgress these norms. This analysis, in acknowledging the problematic cultural associations of the song, illustrates the rich discourse that can be produced when timbre is made central to the analytical process. Volume 26, Number 3, September 2020 Copyright © 2020 Society for Music Theory [0.1] Example 1 is a transcription of the prechorus and chorus of “What’s Love Got to Do with It” by Tina Turner, which reached #1 in the US in September 1984 and #3 in the UK in June 1984. To describe the texture of “What’s Love Got to Do with It,” the instruments can be understood using Allan Moore’s (2012) concept of four functional layers present in pop textures: the explicit beat layer, the functional bass layer, the melodic layer, and the harmonic filler layer. Tina Turner’s voice is the melody layer, which carries the main melody and lyrics.(1) The explicit beat layer and functional bass layer are found, as expected, in the drum set, which plays a basic rock beat, and in the bass line, which plays chord roots in slow, predictable rhythms before switching to a more linear bass in the reggae-tinged chorus, respectively. These two functional layers, according to Moore, work together to provide the “groove” of a pop song. The harmonic filler layer, which Moore defines as the layer whose function is “to fill the ‘registral’ space between [the functional bass and melody] layers,” is made up of the guitar, which plays strictly chordal accompanimental figures; one DX7 preset, . 1, which, like the guitar, plays chordal accompaniment; and the strings, which thicken this core texture. [0.2] Having exhausted Moore’s four functional layers, I have left one instrument uncategorized: the 1 synthesizer sound. The musical content of this instrument is far less predictable than the other instruments, adding syncopated melodic interjections sporadically throughout the introduction. I suspect Moore would categorize this as belonging to the melody layer, and specifically as a “secondary melodic line” (2012, 20). But to me, this obscures the most interesting feature of the 1 line: its distinct timbre, which sets it apart from the typical rock texture. How might an analyst acknowledge the way that timbre contributes to texture in this way? [0.3] In this article, I present a methodology for analyzing timbre that combines spectrogram analysis and cultural analysis. To show how this methodology can be productively implemented, I expand Moore’s system by adding a fifth functional layer, which I term the novelty layer. Using my approach to timbre analysis, I find that the novelty layer is imbued with several layers of semiotic significance: it functions in opposition to the melodic layer, it comprises instruments whose timbral characteristics are more resistant to blending with the rest of the ensemble, and it is the most typical place to find “world instruments” in 1980s popular music. This allows me to construct a narrative through the analysis of timbre and texture. [0.4] Spectrogram analysis first became popular among music theorists in the late 1970s, when computing became more accessible to academics. A sma ering of books on timbre analysis using spectrograms was released between 1975 and 1985 (Erickson 1975; Cogan 1984; Slawson 1985), yet spectrogram analysis never became a mainstream analytical tool in music theory. One possible reason for this is what a spectrogram does not show: the significant role that perception plays in the experience of timbre, as articulated by Cornelia Fales in her foundational article “The Paradox of Timbre” (2002) and reinforced by the studies of other recent timbre scholars (Blake 2012; Heidemann 2014; Lavengood 2019).(2) I define a number of acoustic timbral a ributes to which one may a une when analyzing timbre in order to both aid spectrogram analysis and account for some of this cultural and perceptual work. But identification of these a ributes alone does not produce a stimulating analysis; this simply lays the groundwork for an engaging interpretation of a musical work. [0.5] In order to more securely a ach the spectrogram’s acoustic data to human experience, I have built my vocabulary for spectrogram analysis upon the notion of markedness, popularized in music studies by Robert Ha en (1994), as a way of analyzing the cultural associations that arise during the perceptual processing of timbral a ributes. Put succinctly, markedness is the significance given to difference, often between two opposed terms. In Part 1, I will describe my methodology in detail, showing how spectrograms and consideration of markedness can aid analysts in creating timbre analyses. Part 1 is designed to establish a flexible theory for the analysis of timbre that could be applied to a wide range of repertoires and purposes, and thus the tools I describe there are not limited to those that would apply to the analyses in this article. In this sense, Part 1 almost functions as a manual or glossary for timbre analysis. [0.6] My music analyses are in Parts 2 and 3 of this article. These two parts present analytical case studies that further develop Moore’s functional layers and my novelty layer as constructed in hit 1980s singles by the Yamaha DX7 synthesizer, an immensely popular synthesizer that helped define the sound of the 1980s. I ask readers to remember that Moore and I do not define functional layers by their timbral properties, but rather by the way the sounds are used in the track—that is, by their instrumentational role. Timbre and texture are not made equivalent in this essay, and the functional layers are descriptions of textural function rather than an assessment of timbral quality. However, by tracking the use of Yamaha DX7 presets in a number of mid-’80s hits and identifying their principal functional layers, I assess the levels of markedness within each layer to establish the timbral norms for each—norms which are particular to this idiom of 1980s mainstream popular music. I find that all DX7 presets used in the functional bass, melody, and harmonic filler layers have something in common: they have unmarked timbral characteristics that allow different instruments to blend into a texture. DX7 presets in the novelty layer, by contrast, have marked timbral features that encourage these instruments to stand out. In other words, I will show that in mainstream pop and rock music in the 1980s, the ideal for the instruments composing the former three layers (I refer to this combination as “core sounds” or “core layers”) is to blend with each other; for the novelty instruments, not to blend at all. [0.7] Part 3 concludes the article by using timbral norms to create a dialogic narrative analysis of “Do They Know It’s Christmas?” by Band Aid (1984) as an example of what it might mean to transgress the timbral norms established in Part 2. This analysis, in acknowledging the problematic cultural associations of the song, illustrates the rich discourse that can be produced when timbre is made central to the analytical process. 1. Methodology for Visual Spectrogram Analysis [1.1] With free software such as Audacity or Sonic Visualiser, anyone with access to a computer may easily view a kind of visual transcription of the timbre of any recorded sound.(3) A spectrogram charts frequency on the y-axis and time on the x-axis, while showing amplitude with changes in color as a type of z-axis (Video Example 1). This visualizes in three dimensions the relative weighting of the energy distribution within a given frequency range and provides a visual representation of most of the elements that define a timbre.(4) Put another way, a spectrogram shows the amplitude of all the frequencies present in a sound signal and the way those amplitudes and frequencies change through time. This spectrogram shows not only the fundamental pitch, but also all the overtones that the ear combines into a single tone with a unique timbre. [1.2] Another visual representation of timbre is called a spectrum plot (Example 2). In a spectrum plot, frequency is charted on the x-axis and amplitude on the y-axis, which provide two advantages over spectrograms: one, they are easier to read when showing a single moment of time, and two, they are useful for calculating exact differences in amplitude between various partials. The drawback is that spectrum plots do not show changes in timbre through time.(5) I detail some situations in which spectrum plots are particularly helpful when I define my oppositions. 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引用次数: 2

摘要

本文分为三个相互关联的部分。在第1部分中,我提出了一种结合谱图分析和文化分析的分析音色的方法。我定义了一些声学音色属性,当分析音色时,可以将其组织为标记和未标记的对立对,以帮助谱图分析并解释一些文化和感性工作。在第2部分中,从Allan Moore对流行纹理的四个功能层的定义出发,我主张采用第5层,我称之为新奇层。我通过雅马哈DX7合成器研究了它在20世纪80年代热门单曲中的结构。新奇层充满了多层的符号意义:它的功能与旋律层相对立,由音色特征更不容易与合奏的其他部分混合的乐器组成,并且在20世纪80年代的流行音乐中经常使用“世界乐器”。这一点反映了20世纪80年代音乐文化对世界音乐的问题处理。我使用我的音色分析方法来定义新奇层的音色规范,而不是摩尔的其他层。在第三部分中,我创建了一个对话性叙事分析“他们知道今天是圣诞节吗?”《创可贴》(Band Aid, 1984)的作品,展示了违反这些规范可能意味着什么。这种分析,在承认这首歌的有问题的文化联系,说明了丰富的话语,可以产生当音色作为分析过程的中心。版权所有©2020年9月Society for Music Theory [0.1] Example 1是蒂娜·特纳(Tina Turner)的《What 's Love Got to Do with It》的前奏和合唱的抄本,该歌曲于1984年9月在美国排名第一,于1984年6月在英国排名第三。为了描述“What 's Love Got To Do with It”的织体,可以用Allan Moore(2012)的流行织体中存在的四个功能层的概念来理解乐器:明确的节拍层、功能的低音层、旋律层和和声填充层。Tina Turner的声音是旋律层,传递主旋律和歌词。(1)在鼓组中可以看到明显的节拍层和功能贝斯层,鼓组演奏基本的摇滚节奏,贝斯线演奏和弦根,节奏缓慢,可预测,然后在雷鬼风格的合唱中切换到更线性的贝斯。根据摩尔的说法,这两个功能层一起工作,提供流行歌曲的“最佳状态”。谐波填充层,摩尔将其定义为“填充(功能性低音和旋律)层之间的‘注册’空间”的层,由吉他组成,它严格地演奏和弦伴奏数字;一个DX7预设,。1,像吉他一样,作和弦伴奏;还有琴弦,它能使核心纹理变厚。[0.2]在穷尽了摩尔的四个功能层之后,我留下了一个未分类的乐器:合成器的声音。这种乐器的音乐内容远比其他乐器难以预测,在整个介绍中偶尔加入切分的旋律感叹词。我怀疑Moore会将其归类为旋律层,特别是作为“次要旋律线”(2012,20)。但对我来说,这掩盖了1号线最有趣的特征:它独特的音色,这使它有别于典型的岩石纹理。分析人员如何以这种方式承认音色对结构的贡献?[0.3]在本文中,我提出了一种结合谱图分析和文化分析的分析音色的方法。为了展示如何有效地实现这种方法,我通过添加第五个功能层(我称之为新颖性层)来扩展Moore的系统。使用我的音色分析方法,我发现新奇层具有多层的符号意义:它的功能与旋律层相对立,它包含的乐器的音色特征更不容易与合奏的其他部分混合,它是20世纪80年代流行音乐中最典型的“世界乐器”。这让我可以通过分析音色和纹理来构建叙事。[0.4]谱图分析在20世纪70年代末开始在音乐理论家中流行起来,当时学术界更容易使用计算机。在1975年和1985年之间发布了一系列使用谱图进行音色分析的书籍(Erickson 1975;卡1984;Slawson 1985),但谱图分析从未成为音乐理论的主流分析工具。 一个可能的原因是频谱图没有显示:感知在音色体验中所起的重要作用,正如科妮莉亚·法尔斯在她的基础文章“音色的悖论”(2002年)中所阐述的那样,并得到了最近其他音色学者的研究(Blake 2012;Heidemann 2014;(2)我定义了一些声学音色属性,在分析音色时可以使用这些属性,以帮助谱图分析并解释一些文化和感性工作。但是,仅仅识别这些特征并不能产生令人兴奋的分析;这只是为一个引人入胜的音乐作品的诠释奠定了基础。[0.5]为了更安全地将声谱图的声学数据与人类经验联系起来,我在标记概念的基础上建立了我的声谱图分析词汇,标记概念在罗伯特·哈恩(1994)的音乐研究中得到普及,作为分析在音色属性的感知处理过程中产生的文化联系的一种方式。简而言之,标记性是赋予差异的重要性,通常是在两个相对的术语之间。在第1部分中,我将详细描述我的方法,展示谱图和标记的考虑如何帮助分析人员创建音色分析。第1部分旨在为音色分析建立一个灵活的理论,该理论可以应用于广泛的曲目和目的,因此我在那里描述的工具并不局限于适用于本文中的分析的工具。从这个意义上讲,第1部分几乎可以作为音色分析的手册或术语表。[0.6]我的音乐分析在本文的第二和第三部分。这两部分介绍了分析案例研究,进一步发展了Moore的功能层和我的新奇层,这些层是由雅马哈DX7合成器在20世纪80年代的热门单曲中构建的,这是一个非常受欢迎的合成器,帮助定义了20世纪80年代的声音。我希望读者记住,Moore和我并没有根据音色属性来定义功能层,而是根据声音在音轨中的使用方式来定义功能层——也就是说,根据它们的乐器作用来定义功能层。在本文中,音色和纹理并不等同,功能层是对纹理功能的描述,而不是对音质质量的评价。然而,通过跟踪使用雅马哈DX7预设在一些80年代中期的打击和确定他们的主要功能层,我评估每一层内的标记水平,以建立每个规范的音色规范,这是特殊的80年代主流流行音乐的习语。我发现所有在功能低音,旋律和谐波填充层中使用的DX7预设都有一些共同点:它们具有未标记的音色特征,允许不同的乐器混合成纹理。相比之下,在新颖层DX7预设,有标记的音色特征,鼓励这些仪器脱颖而出。换句话说,我将表明,在20世纪80年代的主流流行音乐和摇滚音乐中,组成前三层的乐器(我将这种组合称为“核心声音”或“核心层”)的理想是相互融合;对于新奇的乐器来说,一点也不混合。[0.7]第三部分通过使用音色规范对《他们知道今天是圣诞节吗?》,作为违反第2部分中建立的音色规范可能意味着什么的例子。这种分析,在承认这首歌的有问题的文化联系,说明了丰富的话语,可以产生当音色作为分析过程的中心。1. [1.1]使用免费软件,如Audacity或Sonic Visualiser,任何人只要有电脑就可以很容易地看到任何录制声音的音色的一种视觉转录。(3)频谱图在y轴上表示频率,在x轴上表示时间。(4)换句话说,谱图显示了声音信号中所有频率的幅值,以及这些幅值和频率随时间变化的方式。这在三维空间中可视化了给定频率范围内能量分布的相对权重,并提供了定义音色的大多数元素的视觉表示。这个谱图不仅显示了基本音高,而且还显示了耳朵组合成一个具有独特音色的单一音调的所有泛音。[1.2]另一种音色的可视化表示称为频谱图(例2)。在频谱图中,频率在x轴上绘制,幅度在y轴上绘制,这比频谱图有两个优点:一,当显示单个时刻时,它们更容易阅读,二,它们对于计算不同部分之间的振幅差异很有用。 缺点是频谱图不能显示音色随时间的变化。(5)我详细说明了频谱图在我定义对立时特别有用的一些情况。[1.3]声谱图一开始似乎包含了大量的信息,所以我在我的方法中建立了一个描述音质特征的词汇
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The Cultural Significance of Timbre Analysis
This article is in three interrelated parts. In Part 1, I present a methodology for analyzing timbre that combines spectrogram analysis and cultural analysis. I define a number of acoustic timbral a ributes to which one may a une when analyzing timbre, organized as oppositional pairs of marked and unmarked terms, in order to both aid in spectrogram analysis and account for some of this cultural and perceptual work. In Part 2, building from Allan Moore’s definition of four functional layers in pop texture, I argue for the adoption of a fifth layer, which I term the novelty layer. I study its construction in 1980s hit singles via the Yamaha DX7 synthesizer. The novelty layer is imbued with several layers of semiotic significance: it functions in opposition to the melodic layer, comprises instruments whose timbral characteristics are more resistant to blending with the rest of the ensemble, and often uses “world instruments” in 1980s popular music. This la er point is a reflection of the problematic treatment of world music by 1980s music culture. I use my approach to timbre analysis to define the timbral norms for the novelty layer as opposed to Moore’s other layers. In Part 3, I create a dialogic narrative analysis of “Do They Know It’s Christmas?” by Band Aid (1984) that demonstrates what it might mean to transgress these norms. This analysis, in acknowledging the problematic cultural associations of the song, illustrates the rich discourse that can be produced when timbre is made central to the analytical process. Volume 26, Number 3, September 2020 Copyright © 2020 Society for Music Theory [0.1] Example 1 is a transcription of the prechorus and chorus of “What’s Love Got to Do with It” by Tina Turner, which reached #1 in the US in September 1984 and #3 in the UK in June 1984. To describe the texture of “What’s Love Got to Do with It,” the instruments can be understood using Allan Moore’s (2012) concept of four functional layers present in pop textures: the explicit beat layer, the functional bass layer, the melodic layer, and the harmonic filler layer. Tina Turner’s voice is the melody layer, which carries the main melody and lyrics.(1) The explicit beat layer and functional bass layer are found, as expected, in the drum set, which plays a basic rock beat, and in the bass line, which plays chord roots in slow, predictable rhythms before switching to a more linear bass in the reggae-tinged chorus, respectively. These two functional layers, according to Moore, work together to provide the “groove” of a pop song. The harmonic filler layer, which Moore defines as the layer whose function is “to fill the ‘registral’ space between [the functional bass and melody] layers,” is made up of the guitar, which plays strictly chordal accompanimental figures; one DX7 preset, . 1, which, like the guitar, plays chordal accompaniment; and the strings, which thicken this core texture. [0.2] Having exhausted Moore’s four functional layers, I have left one instrument uncategorized: the 1 synthesizer sound. The musical content of this instrument is far less predictable than the other instruments, adding syncopated melodic interjections sporadically throughout the introduction. I suspect Moore would categorize this as belonging to the melody layer, and specifically as a “secondary melodic line” (2012, 20). But to me, this obscures the most interesting feature of the 1 line: its distinct timbre, which sets it apart from the typical rock texture. How might an analyst acknowledge the way that timbre contributes to texture in this way? [0.3] In this article, I present a methodology for analyzing timbre that combines spectrogram analysis and cultural analysis. To show how this methodology can be productively implemented, I expand Moore’s system by adding a fifth functional layer, which I term the novelty layer. Using my approach to timbre analysis, I find that the novelty layer is imbued with several layers of semiotic significance: it functions in opposition to the melodic layer, it comprises instruments whose timbral characteristics are more resistant to blending with the rest of the ensemble, and it is the most typical place to find “world instruments” in 1980s popular music. This allows me to construct a narrative through the analysis of timbre and texture. [0.4] Spectrogram analysis first became popular among music theorists in the late 1970s, when computing became more accessible to academics. A sma ering of books on timbre analysis using spectrograms was released between 1975 and 1985 (Erickson 1975; Cogan 1984; Slawson 1985), yet spectrogram analysis never became a mainstream analytical tool in music theory. One possible reason for this is what a spectrogram does not show: the significant role that perception plays in the experience of timbre, as articulated by Cornelia Fales in her foundational article “The Paradox of Timbre” (2002) and reinforced by the studies of other recent timbre scholars (Blake 2012; Heidemann 2014; Lavengood 2019).(2) I define a number of acoustic timbral a ributes to which one may a une when analyzing timbre in order to both aid spectrogram analysis and account for some of this cultural and perceptual work. But identification of these a ributes alone does not produce a stimulating analysis; this simply lays the groundwork for an engaging interpretation of a musical work. [0.5] In order to more securely a ach the spectrogram’s acoustic data to human experience, I have built my vocabulary for spectrogram analysis upon the notion of markedness, popularized in music studies by Robert Ha en (1994), as a way of analyzing the cultural associations that arise during the perceptual processing of timbral a ributes. Put succinctly, markedness is the significance given to difference, often between two opposed terms. In Part 1, I will describe my methodology in detail, showing how spectrograms and consideration of markedness can aid analysts in creating timbre analyses. Part 1 is designed to establish a flexible theory for the analysis of timbre that could be applied to a wide range of repertoires and purposes, and thus the tools I describe there are not limited to those that would apply to the analyses in this article. In this sense, Part 1 almost functions as a manual or glossary for timbre analysis. [0.6] My music analyses are in Parts 2 and 3 of this article. These two parts present analytical case studies that further develop Moore’s functional layers and my novelty layer as constructed in hit 1980s singles by the Yamaha DX7 synthesizer, an immensely popular synthesizer that helped define the sound of the 1980s. I ask readers to remember that Moore and I do not define functional layers by their timbral properties, but rather by the way the sounds are used in the track—that is, by their instrumentational role. Timbre and texture are not made equivalent in this essay, and the functional layers are descriptions of textural function rather than an assessment of timbral quality. However, by tracking the use of Yamaha DX7 presets in a number of mid-’80s hits and identifying their principal functional layers, I assess the levels of markedness within each layer to establish the timbral norms for each—norms which are particular to this idiom of 1980s mainstream popular music. I find that all DX7 presets used in the functional bass, melody, and harmonic filler layers have something in common: they have unmarked timbral characteristics that allow different instruments to blend into a texture. DX7 presets in the novelty layer, by contrast, have marked timbral features that encourage these instruments to stand out. In other words, I will show that in mainstream pop and rock music in the 1980s, the ideal for the instruments composing the former three layers (I refer to this combination as “core sounds” or “core layers”) is to blend with each other; for the novelty instruments, not to blend at all. [0.7] Part 3 concludes the article by using timbral norms to create a dialogic narrative analysis of “Do They Know It’s Christmas?” by Band Aid (1984) as an example of what it might mean to transgress the timbral norms established in Part 2. This analysis, in acknowledging the problematic cultural associations of the song, illustrates the rich discourse that can be produced when timbre is made central to the analytical process. 1. Methodology for Visual Spectrogram Analysis [1.1] With free software such as Audacity or Sonic Visualiser, anyone with access to a computer may easily view a kind of visual transcription of the timbre of any recorded sound.(3) A spectrogram charts frequency on the y-axis and time on the x-axis, while showing amplitude with changes in color as a type of z-axis (Video Example 1). This visualizes in three dimensions the relative weighting of the energy distribution within a given frequency range and provides a visual representation of most of the elements that define a timbre.(4) Put another way, a spectrogram shows the amplitude of all the frequencies present in a sound signal and the way those amplitudes and frequencies change through time. This spectrogram shows not only the fundamental pitch, but also all the overtones that the ear combines into a single tone with a unique timbre. [1.2] Another visual representation of timbre is called a spectrum plot (Example 2). In a spectrum plot, frequency is charted on the x-axis and amplitude on the y-axis, which provide two advantages over spectrograms: one, they are easier to read when showing a single moment of time, and two, they are useful for calculating exact differences in amplitude between various partials. The drawback is that spectrum plots do not show changes in timbre through time.(5) I detail some situations in which spectrum plots are particularly helpful when I define my oppositions. [1.3] Spectrograms may at first appear to have an overwhelming amount of information, so I have built into my methodology a vocabulary for describing timbral a ribute
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来源期刊
CiteScore
1.70
自引率
25.00%
发文量
26
审稿时长
42 weeks
期刊介绍: Music Theory Online is a journal of criticism, commentary, research and scholarship in music theory, music analysis, and related disciplines. The refereed open-access electronic journal of the Society for Music Theory, MTO has been in continuous publication since 1993. New issues are published four times per year and include articles, reviews, commentaries, and analytical essays. In addition, MTO publishes a list of job opportunities and abstracts of recently completed dissertations.
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Xenakis’ Sieve Theory Billy Joel’s Enharmonic Duplicity Emotional Tones and Emotional Texts Becoming and Disintegration in Wolfgang Rihm’s Fifth String Quartet, Ohne Titel Review of Joel Lester, Brahms’s Violin Sonatas: Style, Structure, Performance (New York: Oxford University Press, 2020)
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