The effects of environmental lead on teeth and bone status and the mechanisms of these effects, animal and human evidence, a review

Abstract The effects of lead (Pb) exposure, a major human health threat, on the bone, teeth, and the possible underlying mechanisms are reviewed. The effects of environmental lead on the bone, mouth, and teeth such as osteoporosis and dental caries were demonstrated, which are reported to be due to increased production of osteoclast, bone resorption, oxidative stress, changes in the circulating D3 level, disruption of mineralization, delay fracture healing, effect on Ca2+ metabolism, inflammation, and affecting humoral and cell-mediated immunity. Therefore, reducing environmental lead in workplaces to prevent its harmful effects on the bone and teeth is needed.