Investigation of cultural ecosystem services supply in a river landscape: a case study in the Lower Rhine area using social media images

River landscapes have an important function in the landscape in terms of coastal use and the opportunities they provide and they offer different cultural ecosystem services (CES). CES have a significant impact on human welfare in terms of the recreational, aesthetic and spiritual benefits these generate for people. However, the modelling and analysis of these services is more limited versus other ecosystem services due to their intangibility and subjectivity which creates unique challenges. Recently, social media data have provided an opportunity to generate spatial models of CES, offering significant cost and time advantages. Nevertheless, the usefulness of these novel data sources still requires more investigation versus more traditional survey techniques. This study aims to understand the variety of information provided by the images that users upload publicly on a daily basis to social media in a urban/rural setting. Specifically, CES provided by the open and green spaces around the Lower Rhine (Nederrijn) in Wageningen were studied using images uploaded to the social media platform Flickr. A photographic survey was then conducted to compare the utility and accuracy of these new data versus traditional techniques. In doing so, spatial data, ratings and survey evaluations related to the photographs were digitised, classified and integrated with land cover features. The results show that there is a good consistency between the two sources of data and that a wide range of CES measures can be established using these novel data sources. More work is now needed in developing spatial indicators of CES relevant to local assessments, such as the one carried out in this study. Focusing on the Lower Rhine region as a case study, we used the Flickr digital platform to address the following three key questions: (1) What is the spatial distribution of CES? (2) Do users who post on the Flickr platform fully represent the cultural identity of the community and visitors in the region? (3) Which land-cover types of the Lower Rhine region are most appreciated for CES and what are the aesthetic preferences of visitors and experts that correspond to this?