Exploring Predictors of Postsecondary Outcomes for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Participating in postsecondary activities such as education and employment can increase an individual’s independence, contribution to society, and quality of life. However, researchers suggest that students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) engage in these postsecondary activities less than their peers do. The extent to which academic and social skills predict postsecondary outcomes for students with ASD is not yet understood. Logistic regression analyses using the National Longitudinal Transition Study – 2 (NLTS2; SRI, 2000) dataset were conducted to examine the extent to which academic skills and social skills predict postsecondary outcomes for students with ASD. Results suggested that academic achievement was significantly related to postsecondary education and overall success and that social skills significantly predicted all three postsecondary outcomes for students with ASD. The transition from adolescence to adulthood can be challenging for many students. Students with disabilities in particular experience lower rates of success when transitioning from high school to postsecondary roles in comparison to their typically developing peers (Blackorby & Wagner, 1996). Specifically, students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) encounter a variety of challenges. ASD is a developmental disorder characterized by impaired social interaction and communication skills and a repetitive or restricted pattern of behavior (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). These challenges can make the transition to postsecondary experiences especially difficult for students with ASD. In a comprehensive review of existing literature on the transition from high school to postsecondary environments among students with ASD, Wehman et al. (2014) point to the tremendous potential for individuals with ASD to make important contributions to society if various barriers to their postsecondary success can be overcome. Currently, students with ASD participate in postsecondary educational programs, employment opportunities, and independent living at very low rates (Billstedt, Gillberg, & Gillberg, 2005; Hendricks & Wehman, 2009). Anderson, Shattuck, Cooper, Roux, and Wagner (2014) found that individuals with ASD were much less likely than students of other disability groups to live independently following high school, even when controlling for functional ability. Given these findings, it is important to more carefully explore factors that can potentially affect these students’ transition and integration into the community. There is evidence to suggest that academic achievement in high school is an important factor that corresponds to later outcomes for the student population in general (Hein, Smerdon, & Sambolt, 2013). However, the relationship of academic achievement and postsecondary outcomes for students with ASD is not yet well understood. Additionally, this emphasis on academic achievement may lead to a reduced focus on social skill instruction, which may be especially important for students with ASD given that “persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction across multiple contexts” are a defining feature of ASD according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5 ed.; DSM-5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Although variability exists in the severity and manner in which social impairments manifest across the autism spectrum, students Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Amy Nasamran, c/o Sara E. Witmer, Michigan State University, 620 Farm Lane, Rm. 434, East Lansing, MI 48823. E-mail: saraliz77@gmail.com Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 2017, 52(4), 343–356 © Division on Autism and Developmental Disabilities Predictors of Outcomes for ASD / 343 with ASD by definition universally experience social difficulties, and social skills instruction has been shown to improve social functioning for students with ASD (White, Koenig, & Scahill, 2010). Given the social impairments experienced by students with ASD, social skills may be a particularly important and predictive factor that affects the postsecondary outcomes of students with ASD. Thus, the purpose of the current study is to explore both academic achievement and social skills as predictors of postsecondary success for students with ASD. Postsecondary Outcome Rates Transitioning to and completing a postsecondary education program or obtaining gainful employment can increase an individual’s independence, contribution to society, and quality of life (Hendricks, 2010; Stodden & Mzurek, 2010). However, little research has been conducted regarding these postsecondary outcomes for students with ASD. Some researchers have examined the postsecondary participation rates of individuals with ASD. In a study of 140 young adult and adult males with ASD, only about 14% were a) employed or enrolled in higher education or vocational training and b) living independently, and 27% reported participating in one or the other (Cederlund, Hagberg, Billstedt, Gillberg, & Gillberg, 2008). In another study of 48 young adult males and females with ASD, less than one-third of the participants participated in a postsecondary educational or training program, with only one attending a four-year university, and none having yet graduated with a certificate or degree (Eaves & Ho, 2008). Additionally, only about half of the participants had ever participated in employment opportunities, most of which were in volunteer or part-time settings, such as delivering papers or sorting recyclables (Eaves & Ho, 2008). Finally, more than half of the participants lived at home with their parents, with only four participants living independently. Taylor and Seltzer (2010) examined the postsecondary experiences of 66 students with ASD and examined more closely differences for those with and without comorbid intellectual disabilities (47 with comorbid intellectual disabilities [ID] and 17 without ID). Of the students with ASD and ID, 82% were involved in some sort of regular day activity (i.e., college, employment, adult day services), whereas only 76% of those with ASD and no ID were involved in these regular day activities. Although more students with ASD and no ID were attending a college or university compared to those with ID (i.e., 47% vs. 2%), the lack of structured postsecondary activity among many of the students with ASD and without ID suggests a potential need to look more carefully at those who are higher functioning. Researchers have also compared postsecondary experiences of individuals with ASD to those of the general population and students with other disabilities (Hendricks & Wehman, 2009). These researchers found that less than one-third of 23to 26-year-olds with ASD were currently employed and worked for pay compared to an average of 59% for all respondents (Hendricks & Wehman, 2009). Compared to other disability groups, those with ASD had the second lowest rate of postsecondary employment participation (Hendricks & Wehman, 2009). Rates of postsecondary participation have also been examined in a nationally representative sample of students with ASD. In one study, postsecondary participation rates of students with ASD were compared to those of students of three other disability categories: speech/language impairment, learning disability, and intellectual disability (Shattuck et al., 2012). Postsecondary participation rates in this larger nationally representative sample were consistent with findings in the existing literature, with only about 35% of students with ASD attending a postsecondary educational institution and about 55% participating in paid employment within six years of graduating from high school. However, more than 50% of the ASD group had no participation in postsecondary educational or employment activities within two years of high school graduation. In comparison to the other disability groups, those with ASD had the lowest rate of participation in employment and the highest rate of no participation in postsecondary educational or employment activities (Shattuck et al., 2012). In other studies examining a nationally representative sample of students with ASD, findings indicated that 43% of students with ASD attended a postsecondary educational institution (Chiang, Cheung, 344 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-December 2017 Hickson, Xiang, & Tsai, 2012) and 56% participated in paid employment (Chiang, Cheung, Li, & Tsai, 2013). Together, results from the existing literature consistently indicate that individuals with ASD have poorer postsecondary outcomes and are participating in important postsecondary activities, such as education, employment, and independent living, at lower rates compared to their peers. Based on data from the National Longitudinal Transition Study 2 (NLTS2), enrollment in postsecondary training among students with autism was estimated to be approximately 44% and was less than enrollment rates of six other disability groups, including those with learning disabilities, speech/language impairments, hearing impairments, visual impairments, orthopedic impairments, and those with other health impairments (Newman et al., 2011). The postsecondary completion rate for students with ASD was estimated to be 39% (Newman et al., 2011). In a survey of postsecondary institutions, only 56% reported enrolling students with an ASD; a higher proportion of institutions reported enrolling students of several other disability types, including those with hearing impairments, visual impairments, mobility concerns, learning disabilities, ADD/ADHD, health impairments, and mental illness (Raue & Lewis, 2011). Academic Achievement and Postsecondary Outcomes Pursuing postsecondary activities such as higher education and employment can be a selective process in which only those who meet certain qualifications are given the opportunity to participate (Hart, Grigal, & Weir, 20