Acquisition of land by foreigners in Kobe zakkyochi during the Meiji era

This study identifies some of the distinctive characteristics of the land acquired by foreigners in the zakkyochi (mixed-residential areas) of Kobe, Japan, during the Meiji era, and explores the various means by which foreigners were able to acquire this land. The primary focus is on Kitano-cho and Yamamoto-dori, a well-known residential area for foreigners, where ijinkan (historical Western-style residences) still stand to this day. By law, foreigners in zakkyochi were given only the right to lease land from Japanese citizens and the Japanese government. Nonetheless, foreigners such as E.H. Hunter expanded the area available to them by using the names of Japanese relatives. Although Japanese women who married foreigners were also prohibited from owning land, this restriction did not apply to their children. Thus, in the case of E.H. Hunter, a significant portion of the land he acquired was acquired in the name of his children, primarily in areas adjacent to the mountains, excluding the sites of graveyards and villages. Indeed, it was generally the case that the land used by foreigners in Kobe was concentrated in the hilly areas with good views that did not serve as graveyards or village sites.