Gaming and divination in the Hellenistic Levant: the case study of the astragalus assemblage from Maresha, Israel

Astragali — knuckle bones, especially caprine or cattle — were widely used in ancient societies. They functioned as playthings and tokens for ritual activity and divination, along with other uses. This study examines the assemblage of over 600 astragali from the excavations at Maresha in southern Israel. Maresha was a main city in the region of Idumea. Excavations at the site revealed a prosperous Hellenistic city, mainly from the 4th–2nd centuries BCE. The many caves hewn in the lower city yielded numerous small finds, among them the astragali, which are found in large concentrations in specific caves. This paper examines the morphology, taphonomy and modification of the astragali. Furthermore, the distribution of the astragali in the various caves is analysed, along with intra-site distribution, archaeological context and related objects, the aim being to decipher their use within the life of the city, especially in regard to gaming and divination.