Between neo-militant and quasi-militant democracy: restrictions on freedoms of speech and the press in Austria, Finland, and Sweden 2008–2019

ABSTRACT After the economic collapse in 2008, we observed rapid changes among media markets, digital transformation of information, and the increasing role of social networks in communication, anti-democratic forces use the freedom of speech and the press to share illiberal rhetoric. Considering these phenomena, this study aims to verify how ruling elites use militant democracy means in consolidated democracies to combat anti-democrats by restricting citizens’ fundamental freedoms to express their thoughts and beliefs. The main argument is that different threats for the freedom of speech and the press have occurred in a consolidated democracy: abusing regulations about hate speech crimes and public incitement to hatred, political interventions in the media system, violating relations between the media market and political system, favouring public media and avoiding using restrictions against them. The scope of those threats is different, resulting from using neo-militant instruments or replacing them with quasi-militant democracy means. The methods employed for the analysis are the qualitative analysis of sources and the quantitative analysis of data in the comparative perspective. Austria, Finland, and Sweden – three EU member states recognised as consolidated democracies, with a democratic corporatist model of media systems – were selected for the study.