The Nuṣayrī-ʿAlawīs: An Introduction to the Religion, History, and Identity of the Leading Minority in Syria

̇ na) imposed by the Caliph al-Maʾmūn on civil servants to test their acceptance, and punish the lack thereof, of the doctrine of the created Qurʾān, which was also a Muʿtazilı̄ doctrine but opposed by popular Muslim piety – most notably by Ah ̇ mad ibn H ̇ anbal (d. 241/855). Some scholars of Islamic theology may not agree with all of Hildenbrandt’s analyses and conclusions. Nonetheless, he has presented intellectual historians and students of comparative theology with a tour de force that brings into sharper focus an intellectual debate in modern Islam, making a compelling case for modern Muslim engagement with the Muʿtazilite heritage.