Predation attempts on Hoopoe Upupa epops nests in a rural Mediterranean area of central Italy

Seventeen predation attempts on four Hoopoe Upupa epops nests in an heterogenous agricultural Mediterranean area of central Italy were recorded during breeding seasons 2020-21. Camera traps identified 7 different predators’ species, mainly Western whip snake Hierophis viridiflavus and Black rat Rattus rattus. Uropygial secretions and hissing calls from chicks and incubating female inside the breeding cavity always saved the clutches, while no active defense was performed by parents if outside the nest.