Entangled, unraveled, and reconfigured: Human–animal relations among ethnic minority farmers and water buffalo in the northern uplands of Vietnam

In the rural rice fields of upland northern Vietnam, Hmong and Yao ethnic minority farmers have been relationally “entangled” with a number of domesticated animal species to secure semi-subsistence livelihoods. Among these different inter-species entanglements, the relationships between farmers and water buffalo are the most profound. However, in recent years, the broader, contextual factors that shape the entanglements between farmers and water buffalo have been changing rapidly, provoked primarily by increasing extreme weather events, government-supported market integration, and rising land constraints. As these environmental, political, and socioeconomic factors have intensified, the complexity and persistence of long-standing entanglements between farmers and water buffalo appear to be diminishing. We offer a new conceptual perspective to the entanglement literature in this regard, suggesting that “unraveling” might best represent these processes. Nonetheless, we present the idea of “resistant” entanglements to indicate how many farmers have halted unraveling processes, while we posit a future of “reconfigured” entanglements, increasingly based on market forces. Drawing from in-depth ethnographic fieldwork with ethnic minority farmers, we analyze the changing characteristics of these farmer–buffalo entanglements, as well as a range of related socioeconomic and cultural consequences.