Cultural services in arid landscapes. A comparative study based on people’s perception, southeast of Iran

Abstract Cultural ecosystem services (CESs) are powerful motivators for stakeholders and managers to preserve valuable landscapes. There is little information about CESs and their spatial distribution in arid lands. It is necessary to identify the most important social-ecological drivers of CESs supply to improve coldspot areas in this regard. Seven cultural ecosystem services were quantified based on people’s perception across eight different arid landscapes, in southeast of Iran. A questionnaire was prepared based on landscape photography to interview people using non-proportional quota sampling. Using hotspot analysis, the spatial distribution of cultural services was then examined. CESs’ hotspots were often dispersed in the semi-arid regions (95% of hotspots), whereas coldspots were often dispersed in arid regions (73% of coldspots). The landscape condition, landscape type, and plant traits were the most important ecological drivers of CESs supply (p < 0.05), showing priority regions for conservation or restoration. Woodlands were more successful in providing CESs than rangelands. The two woodland landscapes, i.e., scale-leaved evergreen coniferous and deciduous broad-leaved trees had the most potential for providing CESs. The lowland mixed halophyte shrubs-annual species landscape had the least potential for CESs supply. The education and income (p < 0.05) were the main social drivers of CESs provision, which are effective for restoration of areas with the risk of CESs loss. Our findings provide useful information for planners and managers to understand the potential of different landscapes in providing multiple CESs and to relate them to conservation/restoration plans.