Surface preparation and phenomenological aspects of direct bonding

Various intrinsic and extrinsic parameters that play a role in the preparation of materials for direct bonding are discussed in this paper. The constitution of a material or a wafer can be described on the basis of its shape and its mechanical, chemical and physical surface finish. Subsurface damage is also of importance with respect to direct bonding applications. Different polishing strategies have been evaluated for polishing the surfaces of different materials to a finish suitable for direct bonding. Optical elements can be polished by means of mechanical polishing; refractory metals by means of dedicated mechanical polishing; III–V compounds by means of chemical polishing; semiconductors by means of tribochemical, i.e. chemomechanical polishing; hard materials by means of enhanced tribochemical polishing; noble metals by means of organo-liquid-supported tribochemical polishing; non-noble metals by means of oxidation-stimulated polishing. After such preparative treatments the material or wafer has to be cleaned, using a suitable method. Certain aspects of the bonding phenomenon itself will also be discussed in this paper.