Tissue engineering of the lymphoid organs

The lymphoid system protects the body from pathogens through organs that produce immune cells and facilitate immune surveillance. The study and treatment of a variety of pathologies affecting or interacting with the immune system can benefit from tissue engineering strategies. These designs can be implemented in vitro and in vivo through a variety of fabrication methods. Here we describe structure, cell types, and signaling found in the bone marrow niche, thymus, peripheral lymphoid organs, and lymphatic vasculature. We then summarize lymphoid tissue engineering studies from recent reports, and choice of design components including scaffolds, stromal cells, and chemical or physical signals. Finally, we discuss the current limitations and future of this field.