The Intriguing Carbapenemases of Pseudomonas aeruginosa: Current Status, Genetic Profile, and Global Epidemiology.

Worldwide, Pseudomonas aeruginosa remains a leading nosocomial pathogen that is difficult to treat and constitutes a challenging menace to healthcare systems. P. aeruginosa shows increased and alarming resistance to carbapenems, long acknowledged as last-resort antibiotics for treatment of resistant infections. Varied and recalcitrant pathways of resistance to carbapenems can simultaneously occur in P. aeruginosa, including the production of carbapenemases, broadest spectrum types of β-lactamases that hydrolyze virtually almost all β-lactams, including carbapenems. The organism can produce chromosomal, plasmid-encoded, and integron- or transposon-mediated carbapenemases from different molecular classes. These include Ambler class A (KPC and some types of GES enzymes), class B (different metallo-β-lactamases such as IMP, VIM, and NDM), and class D (oxacillinases with carbapenem-hydrolyzing capacity like OXA-198) enzymes. Additionally, derepression of chromosomal AmpC cephalosporinases in P. aeruginosa contributes to carbapenem resistance in the presence of other concomitant mechanisms such as impermeability or efflux overexpression. Epidemiologic and molecular evidence of carbapenemases in P. aeruginosa has been long accumulating, and reports of their existence in different geographical areas of the world currently exist. Such reports are continuously being updated and reveal emerging varieties of carbapenemases and/or new genetic environments. This review summarizes carbapenemases of importance in P. aeruginosa, highlights their genetic profile, and presents current knowledge about their global epidemiology.