Growth Hormone, Atherosclerosis and Peripheral Arterial Disease: Exploring the Spectrum from Acromegaly to Growth Hormone Deficiency.

Growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) are increasingly recognised for their role in cardiovascular (CV) physiology. The GH-IGF-1 axis plays an essential role in the development of the CV system as well as in the complex molecular network that regulates cardiac and endothelial structure and function. A considerable correlation between GH levels and CV mortality exists even among individuals in the general population without a notable deviation in the GHIGF- 1 axis functioning. In addition, over the last decades, evidence has demonstrated that pathologic conditions involving the GH-IGF-1 axis, as seen in GH excess to GH deficiency, are associated with an increased risk for CV morbidity and mortality. A significant part of that risk can be attributed to several accompanying comorbidities. In both conditions, disease control is associated with a consistent improvement of CV risk factors, reduction of CV mortality, and achievement of standardised mortality ratio similar to that of the general population. Data on the prevalence of peripheral arterial disease in patients with acromegaly or growth hormone deficiency and the effects of GH and IGF-1 levels on the disease progression is limited. In this review, we will consider the pivotal role of the GH-IGF-1 axis on CV system function, as well as the far-reaching consequences that arise when disorders within this axis occur, particularly in relation to the atherosclerosis process.