Oiling-Out in Industrial Crystallization of Organic Small Molecules: Mechanisms, Characterization, Regulation, and Applications

Abstract

Oiling-out is a common phenomenon in industrial crystallization processes that not only prolongs the total operating time but also leads to undesirable crystal morphology, making it challenging to control crystallization paths. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the oiling-out phenomenon in organic small molecule crystallization. First, the formation mechanisms of oiling-out are summarized from both thermodynamic and dynamic perspectives, providing the theoretical foundation for understanding the phenomenon. Then, the universal characterization methods for studying the oiling-out phenomenon of organic small molecules are introduced in detail, covering both offline and online analytical tools. Moreover, the regulation strategy for oiling-out, including solvents, impurities, seeding, temperature, and mixing methods are discussed. This paper also focuses on the application of oiling-out in co-assembly and crystal shape modulation. Finally, future opportunities and challenges are presented to address the current shortcomings and application bottlenecks in the study of organic small molecule oiling-out phenomena. This review aims to provide valuable insights and guidance for researchers working on the crystallization of organic small molecules, particularly in the pharmaceutical industry, to better understand, control, and utilize the oiling-out phenomenon.