Trifluoroacetic Acid in the Environment: Consensus, Gaps, and Next Steps

IF 3.6 4区 环境科学与生态学 Q2 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry Pub Date : 2024-07-30 DOI:10.1002/etc.5963
Mark L. Hanson, Sasha Madronich, Keith Solomon, Mads P. Sulbaek Andersen, Timothy J. Wallington
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This Point of Reference provides an overview of the current science, including a distillation of which topics have significant uncertainty or ongoing debate, and suggests the next steps to move our collective understanding of the potential ecological impact of TFA forward.</p><p>There is broad scientific consensus on the following: TFA is a short-chain perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acid that contains a single −CF<sub>3</sub> moiety bound to a carboxyl functional group, is a strong acid with a negative base-10 logarithm of the acid dissociation constant (pKa) of 0.3, and is completely miscible with water. It is an atmospheric degradation product of some ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) replacements, including several hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs). These compounds produce TFA through hydrolysis of acyl halides, for example, CF<sub>3</sub>CFO (trifluoroacetyl fluoride; Wallington et al., <span>1994</span>), or via secondary photochemistry of trifluoroacetaldehyde (CF<sub>3</sub>CHO; Sulbaek Andersen et al., <span>2004</span>). Once in the environment, TFA has no obvious or significant pathway of degradation and will be deprotonated as its freely dissolved salt that will move with flowing water and accumulate in terminal (endorheic) water bodies, especially marine systems (Boutonnet et al., <span>1999</span>). The Environmental Effects Assessment Panel of the United Nations Environment Programme has routinely assessed global contributions of TFA from replacement CFC gases under the purview of the Montreal Protocol. It is estimated that between 2020 and the year 2100, 31.5 to 51.9 Tg of TFA (acid equivalent) will be produced from the atmospheric degradation of CFC replacement gases. Simplified models show that deposition to the ocean would increase the concentration of TFA from a nominal value of 200 ng L<sup>−1</sup> (acid equivalent) in 2020 to 736 to 1058 ng L<sup>−1</sup> (as Na salt) if uptake is limited to the epipelagic zone (top 200 m of the ocean) or 266 to 284 ng L<sup>−1</sup> (as Na salt) if distributed throughout the ocean (Madronich et al., <span>2023</span>). The salts of TFA are not toxic to aquatic and terrestrial organisms at these environmental concentrations (Berends et al., <span>1999</span>; Boutonnet et al., <span>1999</span>; Figure 1). Because of its physicochemical properties such as high water solubility and low log octanol–water partition coefficient, TFA is unlikely to accumulate in biota (Boutonnet et al., <span>1999</span>; Madronich et al., <span>2024</span>). Current and predicted concentrations (to year 2100) of TFA in the oceans are orders of magnitude lower than thresholds of toxicity, and the risks to environmental health have been assessed to be de minimis (Figure 1; Boutonnet et al., <span>1999</span>; Madronich et al., <span>2024</span>).</p><p>Debate centers on the sources of TFA, specifically the contribution of natural sources. Natural sources were suggested in the 1990s, and a recent inventory of the use of fluorine-containing minerals in industry from the 1930s to 1999 determined that these uses could not account for the concentrations of TFA in the oceans by the end of the 20th century and concluded that there must be geogenic sources that are not yet fully understood (Lindley, <span>2023</span>). 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Atmospheric models (David et al., <span>2021</span>; Luecken et al., <span>2010</span>) indicate that, downwind of large source regions, some CFC replacements could lead to peak deposition rates of several kilograms per square kilometer per year, with concentrations in rain reaching several micrograms per liter. Although these are well below the no-observed-effect concentrations (NOECs) shown in Figure 1, the extent of localized accumulation in surface waters (e.g., lakes) depends on many factors including drainage area and water residence times. Advances in coupled atmospheric–hydrological modeling are needed to better understand the local and regional dispersal of TFA.</p><p>As noted, the bulk of TFA will ultimately be transported to oceans. We acknowledge that evaporation in terminal (endorheic) basins leads to greater concentrations of TFA relative to marine environments, but this process also results in other minerals at much greater concentrations than TFA. 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Abstract

There is ongoing debate about the sources, fate, toxicity, and, ultimately, the ecological risk posed by trifluoroacetic acid (TFA; Brunn et al., 2023; Joudan et al., 2021; Madronich et al., 2023; Scheringer et al., 2024). The debate is sparked in part by TFA's persistence; ubiquity in the environment, especially aquatic ecosystems; and increasing concentrations globally. This Point of Reference provides an overview of the current science, including a distillation of which topics have significant uncertainty or ongoing debate, and suggests the next steps to move our collective understanding of the potential ecological impact of TFA forward.

There is broad scientific consensus on the following: TFA is a short-chain perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acid that contains a single −CF3 moiety bound to a carboxyl functional group, is a strong acid with a negative base-10 logarithm of the acid dissociation constant (pKa) of 0.3, and is completely miscible with water. It is an atmospheric degradation product of some ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) replacements, including several hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs). These compounds produce TFA through hydrolysis of acyl halides, for example, CF3CFO (trifluoroacetyl fluoride; Wallington et al., 1994), or via secondary photochemistry of trifluoroacetaldehyde (CF3CHO; Sulbaek Andersen et al., 2004). Once in the environment, TFA has no obvious or significant pathway of degradation and will be deprotonated as its freely dissolved salt that will move with flowing water and accumulate in terminal (endorheic) water bodies, especially marine systems (Boutonnet et al., 1999). The Environmental Effects Assessment Panel of the United Nations Environment Programme has routinely assessed global contributions of TFA from replacement CFC gases under the purview of the Montreal Protocol. It is estimated that between 2020 and the year 2100, 31.5 to 51.9 Tg of TFA (acid equivalent) will be produced from the atmospheric degradation of CFC replacement gases. Simplified models show that deposition to the ocean would increase the concentration of TFA from a nominal value of 200 ng L−1 (acid equivalent) in 2020 to 736 to 1058 ng L−1 (as Na salt) if uptake is limited to the epipelagic zone (top 200 m of the ocean) or 266 to 284 ng L−1 (as Na salt) if distributed throughout the ocean (Madronich et al., 2023). The salts of TFA are not toxic to aquatic and terrestrial organisms at these environmental concentrations (Berends et al., 1999; Boutonnet et al., 1999; Figure 1). Because of its physicochemical properties such as high water solubility and low log octanol–water partition coefficient, TFA is unlikely to accumulate in biota (Boutonnet et al., 1999; Madronich et al., 2024). Current and predicted concentrations (to year 2100) of TFA in the oceans are orders of magnitude lower than thresholds of toxicity, and the risks to environmental health have been assessed to be de minimis (Figure 1; Boutonnet et al., 1999; Madronich et al., 2024).

Debate centers on the sources of TFA, specifically the contribution of natural sources. Natural sources were suggested in the 1990s, and a recent inventory of the use of fluorine-containing minerals in industry from the 1930s to 1999 determined that these uses could not account for the concentrations of TFA in the oceans by the end of the 20th century and concluded that there must be geogenic sources that are not yet fully understood (Lindley, 2023). The possibility of geogenic sources has recently been contested, primarily on the grounds that the detection of TFA in the deep ocean is not itself evidence of a natural source, as well as concerns about the analytical methods used and the limited scope of sampling at the time of reporting, which was >20 years ago, with few new data since (Joudan et al., 2021). To address these knowledge gaps and to test the hypothesis of geogenic production, systematic monitoring of TFA in the oceans generally, and along gradients from putative natural sources (e.g., volcanoes and hydrothermal vents) to no known sources, are needed, as well as elucidation of a mechanism of formation.

Another source of uncertainty is the contribution of TFA from anthropogenic sources other than CFC replacements, such as manufacturing of fluorinated chemicals and the degradation of pharmaceuticals and pesticides that contain –CF3 moieties. The addition of –CF3 moieties provides useful properties such as enhanced stability; still, these compounds can undergo transformation in the environment (e.g., via photolysis and/or metabolism), producing TFA. However, their relative contributions to the global mass balance of TFA are uncertain because manufacturing inventories and data on use are not readily available and degradation rates have not been characterized for most compounds (Madronich et al., 2024). Updated production inventories and release of compounds that contain the –CF3 moiety are needed to assess their contribution of TFA to the environment.

Regional gradients in the distribution of TFA are also highly uncertain. Atmospheric models (David et al., 2021; Luecken et al., 2010) indicate that, downwind of large source regions, some CFC replacements could lead to peak deposition rates of several kilograms per square kilometer per year, with concentrations in rain reaching several micrograms per liter. Although these are well below the no-observed-effect concentrations (NOECs) shown in Figure 1, the extent of localized accumulation in surface waters (e.g., lakes) depends on many factors including drainage area and water residence times. Advances in coupled atmospheric–hydrological modeling are needed to better understand the local and regional dispersal of TFA.

As noted, the bulk of TFA will ultimately be transported to oceans. We acknowledge that evaporation in terminal (endorheic) basins leads to greater concentrations of TFA relative to marine environments, but this process also results in other minerals at much greater concentrations than TFA. These minerals render the water unsuitable for consumption by wildlife and exclude aquatic organisms other than halophilic species from these habitats. Therefore, exposure to TFA as the salt will be greatest and most ubiquitous to marine organisms, as well as most significant ecologically from a scale perspective, relative to other ecosystems. Currently, only two laboratory toxicity tests for marine algae (Skeletonema costatum and Phaeodactylum tricornutum) are available, with a reported 96-h NOEC for biomass of 2400 mg L−1 and a 72-h NOEC of 117 mg L−1, respectively (Berends et al., 1999; Solomon et al., 2016). To address this knowledge gap, a comprehensive suite of acute and chronic tests for marine organisms to better inform ecological risk assessment should be undertaken.

In conclusion, core uncertainties remain in our understanding of the sources, fate, and ecotoxicity of TFA in the environment. Priority recommendations to address these are (1) development of inventories for production of chemicals with –CF3 moieties, (2) atmospheric and hydrological modeling to characterize TFA transport from source regions to the oceans, (3) additional measurements of TFA levels in the oceans, and (4) characterization of the toxicology of TFA for marine organisms. Closing these knowledge gaps will significantly advance our collective understanding of the environmental toxicology and chemistry of TFA.

The authors are current members of the United Nations Environment Programme's (UNEP) Environmental Effects Assessment Panel (EEAP). The opinions expressed in this Points of Reference are entirely their own.

Mark L. Hanson, Sasha Madronich, Keith Solomon, Mads P. Sulbaek Andersen, Timothy J. Wallington: Conceptualization; Writing–original draft; Writing—review & editing.

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环境中的三氟乙酸:共识、差距和下一步行动。
关于三氟乙酸(TFA;Brunn 等人,2023 年;Joudan 等人,2021 年;Madronich 等人,2023 年;Scheringer 等人,2024 年)的来源、归宿、毒性以及最终造成的生态风险一直存在争议。引发这场争论的部分原因是反式脂肪酸的持久性、在环境中无处不在(尤其是水生生态系统)以及全球浓度的不断增加。本《参考要点》概述了当前的科学状况,包括对存在重大不确定性或持续争论的主题进行了提炼,并提出了下一步建议,以推动我们对反式脂肪酸潜在生态影响的集体认识:反式脂肪酸是一种短链全氟烷基羧酸,含有与羧基官能团结合的单个 -CF3 分子,是一种强酸,其酸解离常数 (pKa) 的负碱-10 对数为 0.3,并且完全与水混溶。它是一些消耗臭氧层的氟氯化碳(CFC)替代品在大气中的降解产物,其中包括几种氯氟烃(HCFC)、氢氟碳化物(HFC)和氢氟烯烃(HFO)。这些化合物通过酰基卤(例如 CF3CFO(三氟乙酰氟;Wallington 等人,1994 年))的水解或三氟乙醛(CF3CHO;Sulbaek Andersen 等人,2004 年)的二次光化学作用产生反式脂肪酸。一旦进入环境,反式脂肪酸没有明显或重要的降解途径,会被去质子化为可自由溶解的盐,随水流移动,并在终端(内流)水体,尤其是海洋系统中积累(Boutonnet 等人,1999 年)。联合国环境规划署环境影响评估小组对《蒙特利尔议定书》范围内替代氟氯化碳气体产生的反式脂肪酸的全球贡献进行了例行评估。据估计,从 2020 年到 2100 年,氟氯化碳替代气体的大气降解将产生 31.5 到 51.9 千兆克的反式脂肪酸(酸当量)。简化模型显示,沉积到海洋中的反式脂肪酸浓度将从 2020 年的 200 纳克/升(酸当量)增加到 736 至 1058 纳克/升(作为 Na 盐),如果吸收仅限于上深海区(海洋顶部 200 米),或者如果分布在整个海洋中,则为 266 至 284 纳克/升(作为 Na 盐)(Madronich 等人,2023 年)。在这些环境浓度下,反式脂肪酸盐对水生和陆生生物无毒性(Berends 等人,1999 年;Boutonnet 等人,1999 年;图 1)。由于反式脂肪酸具有高水溶性和低辛醇-水分配系数对数等物理化学特性,因此不太可能在生物群中积累(Boutonnet 等人,1999 年;Madronich 等人,2024 年)。目前和预测(到 2100 年)海洋中的反式脂肪酸浓度比毒性阈值低几个数量级,对环境健康的风险被评估为微乎其微(图 1;Boutonnet 等人,1999 年;Madronich 等人,2024 年)。20 世纪 90 年代,有人提出了天然来源,而最近对 20 世纪 30 年代至 1999 年期间含氟矿物在工业中的使用情况进行的清查确定,这些使用无法解释 20 世纪末海洋中反式脂肪酸的浓度,并得出结论认为,一定存在尚未完全了解的地质来源(Lindley,2023 年)。最近,人们对地质来源的可能性提出了质疑,主要理由是在深海中检测到反式脂肪酸本身并不能证明存在天然来源,而且人们对所使用的分析方法和报告时有限的采样范围(20 年前)表示担忧,因为此后几乎没有新的数据(Joudan 等人,2021 年)。为了填补这些知识空白并验证地质生成的假设,需要对海洋中的反式脂肪酸进行系统监测,并沿着从推测的天然来源(如火山和热液喷口)到未知来源的梯度进行监测,同时阐明其形成机制。另一个不确定来源是除 CFC 替代品以外的人为来源产生的反式脂肪酸,例如含氟化学品的制造以及含有 -CF3 分子的药品和杀虫剂的降解。添加 -CF3 分子可提供有用的特性,如增强稳定性;不过,这些化合物仍可在环境中发生转化(如通过光解和/或新陈代谢),产生反式脂肪酸。然而,它们对全球反式脂肪酸质量平衡的相对贡献并不确定,因为制造库存和使用数据并不容易获得,而且大多数化合物的降解率还没有定性(Madronich 等人,2024 年)。
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CiteScore
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自引率
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发文量
265
审稿时长
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期刊介绍: The Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) publishes two journals: Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (ET&C) and Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management (IEAM). Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry is dedicated to furthering scientific knowledge and disseminating information on environmental toxicology and chemistry, including the application of these sciences to risk assessment.[...] Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry is interdisciplinary in scope and integrates the fields of environmental toxicology; environmental, analytical, and molecular chemistry; ecology; physiology; biochemistry; microbiology; genetics; genomics; environmental engineering; chemical, environmental, and biological modeling; epidemiology; and earth sciences. ET&C seeks to publish papers describing original experimental or theoretical work that significantly advances understanding in the area of environmental toxicology, environmental chemistry and hazard/risk assessment. Emphasis is given to papers that enhance capabilities for the prediction, measurement, and assessment of the fate and effects of chemicals in the environment, rather than simply providing additional data. The scientific impact of papers is judged in terms of the breadth and depth of the findings and the expected influence on existing or future scientific practice. Methodological papers must make clear not only how the work differs from existing practice, but the significance of these differences to the field. Site-based research or monitoring must have regional or global implications beyond the particular site, such as evaluating processes, mechanisms, or theory under a natural environmental setting.
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Correction. Spotlights are papers selected by editors published in peer-reviewed journals that may be more regionally specific or appearing in languages other than English Issue Information - Cover Editorial Board and Table of Contents Detection and Prediction of Toxic Aluminum Concentrations in High-Priority Salmon Rivers in Nova Scotia.
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