What every intensivist needs to know about mpox

IF 8.8 1区 医学 Q1 CRITICAL CARE MEDICINE Critical Care Pub Date : 2024-11-04 DOI:10.1186/s13054-024-05114-8
Siyao Zeng, Yue Li, Zhipeng Yao, Junbo Zheng, Hongliang Wang
{"title":"What every intensivist needs to know about mpox","authors":"Siyao Zeng, Yue Li, Zhipeng Yao, Junbo Zheng, Hongliang Wang","doi":"10.1186/s13054-024-05114-8","DOIUrl":null,"url":null,"abstract":"<p>The mpox virus is a zoonotic orthopoxvirus with a DNA genome. Based on genetic characteristics, the mpox virus is categorized into two main clades: clade I and clade II. Clade I is further subdivided into subclades Ia and Ib [1]. Clade I is predominantly found in Central Africa, while clade II primarily circulates in West Africa [2]. The clade IIb subclade of clade II caused the global mpox outbreak from 2022 to 2023, during which 86% of cases were among men who have sex with men (MSM) [1]. More than half of the reported mpox cases involve individuals who are co-infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) [3]. The 2024 mpox outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and neighboring countries is primarily caused by clade Ia [4]. Only in 2024, as of September 15, the Democratic Republic of the Congo has reported 25,757 cases of mpox, with 806 deaths [3]. In April 2024, scientists identified a new variant of clade I, named Ib, by analyzing samples collected in South Kivu Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo, from late 2023 to early 2024. Reports of infections caused by the Ib variant have increased over the past few months. The proportion of women infected with clade Ib was significantly higher (52%), with nearly one-third identifying as sex workers [1]. On August 15, Sweden reported its first case of mpox caused by the Ib variant. Thailand confirmed its first Ib variant mpox case on August 22 [4]. Compared to clade IIb, which caused the global mpox outbreak in 2022, clade Ia exhibits stronger human-to-human transmissibility and higher mortality and severity rates. As for the clade Ib, its characteristics remain unclear [5].</p><p>As the mpox outbreak intensifies, by August 31, 2024, a total of 106,310 confirmed cases have been reported across 123 countries worldwide, resulting in 234 laboratory-confirmed deaths [3]. In Africa, the confirmed and suspected mpox cases in 2024 have surpassed 17,500, far exceeding the 15,000 cases reported in 2023. In response to this escalating situation, the Africa Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (Africa CDC) declared mpox a “Public Health Emergency of Security Concern” (PHESC) for the first time on August 13, 2024. The following day, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the mpox outbreak a “Public Health Emergency of International Concern” (PHEIC), urging global cooperation to prevent further spread [5]. The current mpox outbreak may pose new challenges for intensivists worldwide.</p><p>Mpox mainly spreads through transmission between animals and humans or from person to person. Animal-to-human transmission can happen through direct contact with an infected animal, being bitten or scratched, or consuming undercooked meat from an infected animal. Human-to-human transmission primarily occurs through direct contact with an infected individual’s skin or mucous membrane lesions, oral secretions, upper respiratory secretions (such as nasal discharge and mucus), and items contaminated with the virus (such as bedding). Sexual contact, particularly in the context of the clade IIb outbreak and the current Ib outbreak, plays a significant role in transmission. Also, prolonged close exposure to respiratory droplets and mother-to-child transmission are significant transmission routes [6].</p><p>When treating mpox patients, intensivists should wear appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE), including N95 respirators or equivalent, eye protection, gloves, and gowns. PPE should be donned correctly, ensuring complete coverage of exposed areas to minimize contamination. In potential aerosol-generating procedures (AGPs), such as bronchoalveolar lavage, intubation, or extubation, powered air-purifying respirators (PAPRs) may be recommended for additional protection. Extra caution should be exercised during these procedures using protective barriers like intubation boxes or video laryngoscopy to minimize exposure. In healthcare settings where prolonged close contact occurs, especially during AGPs, the risk of transmission is heightened. For this reason, adhering to stringent PPE protocols is crucial [7].</p><p>Suspected or confirmed mpox patients should be isolated in single rooms with dedicated bathrooms. Airborne infection isolation rooms (AIIRs) with negative pressure are preferred to prevent airborne transmission. Biocontainment units (BCUs) may be employed in high-risk settings, especially for severely immunocompromised patients or those with disseminated disease [7].</p><p>Following airway management precautions and guidelines similar to those used during the COVID-19 pandemic is advisable. However, it is essential to note that COVID-19 management varied significantly over time and across regions. Therefore, in mpox, current guidance emphasizes consistent use of respiratory protection (such as N95 or equivalent), minimizing AGPs, and optimizing isolation procedures to reduce nosocomial transmission [7].</p><p>Diagnosing mpox involves collecting lesion samples or bodily fluids from suspected cases for polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing [8]. Patients with mpox who are admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) for treatment are often those already diagnosed with severe mpox. Mpox should be considered severe when patients exhibit the following conditions: ocular infections; neurologic complications; myopericarditis; complications associated with mucosal (oral, rectal, genital, and urethral) lesions and complications from uncontrolled viral spread due to moderate or severe immunocompromise, particularly advanced HIV infection [9].</p><p>Mpox has been reported to potentially cause a range of life-threatening complications, affecting nearly every organ system in the body. These complications include vision-threatening keratitis, conjunctivitis, secondary skin infections with multidrug-resistant bacteria, fungi, or viruses, sepsis, bronchopneumonia, epiglottitis, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), acute kidney injury (AKI), multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS), myocarditis, pericarditis, arrhythmias, Ludwig's angina, cardiac arrest, encephalitis, and encephalomyelitis (Fig. 1) [8, 10]. Intensivists must be vigilant for these potential complications. Additionally, immunocompromised individuals, such as those with advanced HIV infection (CD4 + T cell count &lt; 200 cells/cm<sup>3</sup>) and organ transplant recipients, are more susceptible to these complications and severe mpox [1].</p><figure><figcaption><b data-test=\"figure-caption-text\">Fig. 1</b></figcaption><picture><source srcset=\"//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs13054-024-05114-8/MediaObjects/13054_2024_5114_Fig1_HTML.png?as=webp\" type=\"image/webp\"/><img alt=\"figure 1\" aria-describedby=\"Fig1\" height=\"479\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs13054-024-05114-8/MediaObjects/13054_2024_5114_Fig1_HTML.png\" width=\"685\"/></picture><p>Complications of mpox</p><span>Full size image</span><svg aria-hidden=\"true\" focusable=\"false\" height=\"16\" role=\"img\" width=\"16\"><use xlink:href=\"#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small\" xmlns:xlink=\"http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink\"></use></svg></figure><h3>Supportive care</h3><p>For most mild mpox patients with intact immune systems and no skin lesions, supportive care will help them recover independently [9]. Regardless of disease severity, supportive care remains the cornerstone of mpox treatment, with particular attention to skin lesion care, pain management, and fluid management [2, 11]. Pain management is crucial, with primary medications including acetaminophen, ibuprofen, or topical lidocaine for mild cases. ICU patients often require more potent opioid analgesics such as morphine and oxycodone [2]. Intensivists should closely monitor dehydration in mpox patients caused by fever, reduced intake, and other systemic manifestations. Fluid resuscitation, maintenance, and electrolyte balance correction are crucial [11].</p><h3>Available drug therapeutics for severe mpox</h3><p>For severe mpox patients, the following medications may be considered:</p><h3>Tecovirimat (TPOXX or ST-246)</h3><p>Tecovirimat is an emerging antiviral drug inhibiting the highly conserved viral envelope protein p37 in orthopoxviruses. Note that the optimal bioavailability of tecovirimat depends on the concurrent intake of high-fat foods [12]. It should not be administered intravenously to patients with severe renal impairment (creatinine clearance &lt; 30 mL/min) [11]. Disappointingly, tecovirimat has been reported to be ineffective against the clade Ib in clinical trials [13].</p><h3>Cidofovir (Vistide)</h3><p>This drug inhibits DNA synthesis by inserting itself into the DNA chain as replication occurs. Its dose-dependent nephrotoxicity limits its use, so it is usually administered with oral probenecid and hydration [12]. Caution is advised when using cidofovir with tenofovir disoproxil fumarate in HIV patients on antiretroviral therapy (ART). In patients with HIV infection and AKI, it may be necessary to change their ART regimen to one that does not include tenofovir disoproxil fumarate; consultation with an HIV specialist is recommended [10].</p><h3>Brincidofovir (CMX001 or Tembexa)</h3><p>Brincidofovir is a prodrug of cidofovir with lower nephrotoxicity but may cause elevated liver enzymes (such as transaminases and bilirubin), necessitating liver enzyme monitoring [10, 12]. However, obtaining brincidofovir can be challenging.</p><h3>Vaccinia immune globulin intravenous (VIGIV)</h3><p>VIGIV is primarily used for immunocompromised adults and children or those who cannot receive antiviral treatment (including tecovirimat) or for whom antiviral treatment is ineffective, or in severe cases, in combination with antiviral drugs and/or other therapies [8].</p><h3>Mpox in patients with HIV</h3><p>Mpox patients with HIV who have not received ART should start ART as soon as possible to improve immune function, ideally in conjunction with mpox treatment. Based on the severity of immune compromise and uncontrolled viral replication, prompt use of tecovirimat (possibly in intravenous form) may be considered, potentially in combination with cidofovir or brincidofovir and VIGIV. It is important to note that immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS) potentially induced by ART may worsen the condition of mpox patients [14].</p><h3>Drug interactions</h3><p>Medications used for severe mpox may interact with some drugs. Intensivists should be aware of these drug interactions; for example, tecovirimat can reduce the concentration of midazolam in the blood, diminishing its effectiveness. Additionally, tecovirimat can increase the concentration of repaglinide in the blood, leading to hypoglycemia [7, 15]. The drug interactions for severe mpox can be found in Table 1 [16,17,18,19].</p><figure><figcaption><b data-test=\"table-caption\">Table 1 Drug interactions of available drug therapeutics for severe mpox</b></figcaption><span>Full size table</span><svg aria-hidden=\"true\" focusable=\"false\" height=\"16\" role=\"img\" width=\"16\"><use xlink:href=\"#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small\" xmlns:xlink=\"http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink\"></use></svg></figure><p>Intensivists who are caring for mpox patients should consider receiving the modified vaccinia Ankara (MVA) vaccine (JYNNEOS, Bavarian Nordic) to reduce the risk of infection [14]. For individuals with compromised immune systems, including those with HIV, primary immunodeficiencies, or those undergoing immunosuppressive therapy, the MVA vaccine is considered safe [20].</p><p>No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.</p><dl><dt style=\"min-width:50px;\"><dfn>Africa CDC:</dfn></dt><dd>\n<p>Africa Centers for Disease Control</p>\n</dd><dt style=\"min-width:50px;\"><dfn>AGPs:</dfn></dt><dd>\n<p>Aerosol-generating procedures</p>\n</dd><dt style=\"min-width:50px;\"><dfn>AIIRs:</dfn></dt><dd>\n<p>Airborne infection isolation rooms</p>\n</dd><dt style=\"min-width:50px;\"><dfn>AKI:</dfn></dt><dd>\n<p>Acute kidney injury</p>\n</dd><dt style=\"min-width:50px;\"><dfn>ARDS:</dfn></dt><dd>\n<p>Acute respiratory distress syndrome</p>\n</dd><dt style=\"min-width:50px;\"><dfn>ART:</dfn></dt><dd>\n<p>Antiretroviral therapy</p>\n</dd><dt style=\"min-width:50px;\"><dfn>BCUs:</dfn></dt><dd>\n<p>Biocontainment units</p>\n</dd><dt style=\"min-width:50px;\"><dfn>HIV:</dfn></dt><dd>\n<p>Human immunodeficiency virus</p>\n</dd><dt style=\"min-width:50px;\"><dfn>ICU:</dfn></dt><dd>\n<p>Intensive care unit</p>\n</dd><dt style=\"min-width:50px;\"><dfn>IRIS:</dfn></dt><dd>\n<p>Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome</p>\n</dd><dt style=\"min-width:50px;\"><dfn>MSM:</dfn></dt><dd>\n<p>Men who have sex with men</p>\n</dd><dt style=\"min-width:50px;\"><dfn>MODS:</dfn></dt><dd>\n<p>Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome</p>\n</dd><dt style=\"min-width:50px;\"><dfn>MVA:</dfn></dt><dd>\n<p>Modified vaccinia Ankara</p>\n</dd><dt style=\"min-width:50px;\"><dfn>OATP:</dfn></dt><dd>\n<p>Organic anion transporting polypeptide</p>\n</dd><dt style=\"min-width:50px;\"><dfn>PAPRs:</dfn></dt><dd>\n<p>Powered air-purifying respirators</p>\n</dd><dt style=\"min-width:50px;\"><dfn>PCR:</dfn></dt><dd>\n<p>Polymerase chain reaction</p>\n</dd><dt style=\"min-width:50px;\"><dfn>PHESC:</dfn></dt><dd>\n<p>Public Health Emergency of Security Concern</p>\n</dd><dt style=\"min-width:50px;\"><dfn>PHEIC:</dfn></dt><dd>\n<p>Public Health Emergency of International Concern</p>\n</dd><dt style=\"min-width:50px;\"><dfn>PPE:</dfn></dt><dd>\n<p>Personal protective equipment</p>\n</dd><dt style=\"min-width:50px;\"><dfn>VIGIV:</dfn></dt><dd>\n<p>Vaccinia immune globulin intravenous</p>\n</dd><dt style=\"min-width:50px;\"><dfn>WHO:</dfn></dt><dd>\n<p>World Health Organization</p>\n</dd></dl><ol data-track-component=\"outbound reference\" data-track-context=\"references section\"><li data-counter=\"1.\"><p>Harris E. 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Labels for NDA 020638. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&amp;ApplNo=020638. Accessed 23 Sep 2024.</p></li><li data-counter=\"20.\"><p>Mpox and HIV. https://www.cdc.gov/mpox/about/mpox-and-hiv.html. Accessed 23 Sep 2024.</p></li></ol><p>Download references<svg aria-hidden=\"true\" focusable=\"false\" height=\"16\" role=\"img\" width=\"16\"><use xlink:href=\"#icon-eds-i-download-medium\" xmlns:xlink=\"http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink\"></use></svg></p><p>We are grateful for this study's support provided by the Department of Critical Care Medicine at the Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University.</p><p>This study was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (82472184), National Key Research and Development Program of China (2021YFC2501800), Heilongjiang Provincial Postdoctoral Science Foundation of China (LBH-Q19137), Heilongjiang Province Science Fund for Distinguished Young Scholars (JQ2021H002), Youth Medical Research Special Fund (Z-2018-35-1902) and Harbin Medical University Youth Fund (PYQN2023-9).</p><h3>Authors and Affiliations</h3><ol><li><p>Harbin Medical University Graduate School, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150086, Heilongjiang Province, China</p><p>Siyao Zeng</p></li><li><p>Department of Critical Care Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150086, Heilongjiang Province, China</p><p>Yue Li, Zhipeng Yao, Junbo Zheng &amp; Hongliang Wang</p></li></ol><span>Authors</span><ol><li><span>Siyao Zeng</span>View author publications<p>You can also search for this author in <span>PubMed<span> </span>Google Scholar</span></p></li><li><span>Yue Li</span>View author publications<p>You can also search for this author in <span>PubMed<span> </span>Google Scholar</span></p></li><li><span>Zhipeng Yao</span>View author publications<p>You can also search for this author in <span>PubMed<span> </span>Google Scholar</span></p></li><li><span>Junbo Zheng</span>View author publications<p>You can also search for this author in <span>PubMed<span> </span>Google Scholar</span></p></li><li><span>Hongliang Wang</span>View author publications<p>You can also search for this author in <span>PubMed<span> </span>Google Scholar</span></p></li></ol><h3>Contributions</h3><p>SYZ and HLW proposed this study. SYZ searched for literature and obtained information. YL and ZPY have created the figure and table. SYZ drafted the manuscript, and HLW and JBZ revised it. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.</p><h3>Corresponding authors</h3><p>Correspondence to Junbo Zheng or Hongliang Wang.</p><h3>Competing interests</h3>\n<p>The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest. 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Abstract

The mpox virus is a zoonotic orthopoxvirus with a DNA genome. Based on genetic characteristics, the mpox virus is categorized into two main clades: clade I and clade II. Clade I is further subdivided into subclades Ia and Ib [1]. Clade I is predominantly found in Central Africa, while clade II primarily circulates in West Africa [2]. The clade IIb subclade of clade II caused the global mpox outbreak from 2022 to 2023, during which 86% of cases were among men who have sex with men (MSM) [1]. More than half of the reported mpox cases involve individuals who are co-infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) [3]. The 2024 mpox outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and neighboring countries is primarily caused by clade Ia [4]. Only in 2024, as of September 15, the Democratic Republic of the Congo has reported 25,757 cases of mpox, with 806 deaths [3]. In April 2024, scientists identified a new variant of clade I, named Ib, by analyzing samples collected in South Kivu Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo, from late 2023 to early 2024. Reports of infections caused by the Ib variant have increased over the past few months. The proportion of women infected with clade Ib was significantly higher (52%), with nearly one-third identifying as sex workers [1]. On August 15, Sweden reported its first case of mpox caused by the Ib variant. Thailand confirmed its first Ib variant mpox case on August 22 [4]. Compared to clade IIb, which caused the global mpox outbreak in 2022, clade Ia exhibits stronger human-to-human transmissibility and higher mortality and severity rates. As for the clade Ib, its characteristics remain unclear [5].

As the mpox outbreak intensifies, by August 31, 2024, a total of 106,310 confirmed cases have been reported across 123 countries worldwide, resulting in 234 laboratory-confirmed deaths [3]. In Africa, the confirmed and suspected mpox cases in 2024 have surpassed 17,500, far exceeding the 15,000 cases reported in 2023. In response to this escalating situation, the Africa Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (Africa CDC) declared mpox a “Public Health Emergency of Security Concern” (PHESC) for the first time on August 13, 2024. The following day, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the mpox outbreak a “Public Health Emergency of International Concern” (PHEIC), urging global cooperation to prevent further spread [5]. The current mpox outbreak may pose new challenges for intensivists worldwide.

Mpox mainly spreads through transmission between animals and humans or from person to person. Animal-to-human transmission can happen through direct contact with an infected animal, being bitten or scratched, or consuming undercooked meat from an infected animal. Human-to-human transmission primarily occurs through direct contact with an infected individual’s skin or mucous membrane lesions, oral secretions, upper respiratory secretions (such as nasal discharge and mucus), and items contaminated with the virus (such as bedding). Sexual contact, particularly in the context of the clade IIb outbreak and the current Ib outbreak, plays a significant role in transmission. Also, prolonged close exposure to respiratory droplets and mother-to-child transmission are significant transmission routes [6].

When treating mpox patients, intensivists should wear appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE), including N95 respirators or equivalent, eye protection, gloves, and gowns. PPE should be donned correctly, ensuring complete coverage of exposed areas to minimize contamination. In potential aerosol-generating procedures (AGPs), such as bronchoalveolar lavage, intubation, or extubation, powered air-purifying respirators (PAPRs) may be recommended for additional protection. Extra caution should be exercised during these procedures using protective barriers like intubation boxes or video laryngoscopy to minimize exposure. In healthcare settings where prolonged close contact occurs, especially during AGPs, the risk of transmission is heightened. For this reason, adhering to stringent PPE protocols is crucial [7].

Suspected or confirmed mpox patients should be isolated in single rooms with dedicated bathrooms. Airborne infection isolation rooms (AIIRs) with negative pressure are preferred to prevent airborne transmission. Biocontainment units (BCUs) may be employed in high-risk settings, especially for severely immunocompromised patients or those with disseminated disease [7].

Following airway management precautions and guidelines similar to those used during the COVID-19 pandemic is advisable. However, it is essential to note that COVID-19 management varied significantly over time and across regions. Therefore, in mpox, current guidance emphasizes consistent use of respiratory protection (such as N95 or equivalent), minimizing AGPs, and optimizing isolation procedures to reduce nosocomial transmission [7].

Diagnosing mpox involves collecting lesion samples or bodily fluids from suspected cases for polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing [8]. Patients with mpox who are admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) for treatment are often those already diagnosed with severe mpox. Mpox should be considered severe when patients exhibit the following conditions: ocular infections; neurologic complications; myopericarditis; complications associated with mucosal (oral, rectal, genital, and urethral) lesions and complications from uncontrolled viral spread due to moderate or severe immunocompromise, particularly advanced HIV infection [9].

Mpox has been reported to potentially cause a range of life-threatening complications, affecting nearly every organ system in the body. These complications include vision-threatening keratitis, conjunctivitis, secondary skin infections with multidrug-resistant bacteria, fungi, or viruses, sepsis, bronchopneumonia, epiglottitis, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), acute kidney injury (AKI), multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS), myocarditis, pericarditis, arrhythmias, Ludwig's angina, cardiac arrest, encephalitis, and encephalomyelitis (Fig. 1) [8, 10]. Intensivists must be vigilant for these potential complications. Additionally, immunocompromised individuals, such as those with advanced HIV infection (CD4 + T cell count < 200 cells/cm3) and organ transplant recipients, are more susceptible to these complications and severe mpox [1].

Fig. 1
Abstract Image

Complications of mpox

Full size image

Supportive care

For most mild mpox patients with intact immune systems and no skin lesions, supportive care will help them recover independently [9]. Regardless of disease severity, supportive care remains the cornerstone of mpox treatment, with particular attention to skin lesion care, pain management, and fluid management [2, 11]. Pain management is crucial, with primary medications including acetaminophen, ibuprofen, or topical lidocaine for mild cases. ICU patients often require more potent opioid analgesics such as morphine and oxycodone [2]. Intensivists should closely monitor dehydration in mpox patients caused by fever, reduced intake, and other systemic manifestations. Fluid resuscitation, maintenance, and electrolyte balance correction are crucial [11].

Available drug therapeutics for severe mpox

For severe mpox patients, the following medications may be considered:

Tecovirimat (TPOXX or ST-246)

Tecovirimat is an emerging antiviral drug inhibiting the highly conserved viral envelope protein p37 in orthopoxviruses. Note that the optimal bioavailability of tecovirimat depends on the concurrent intake of high-fat foods [12]. It should not be administered intravenously to patients with severe renal impairment (creatinine clearance < 30 mL/min) [11]. Disappointingly, tecovirimat has been reported to be ineffective against the clade Ib in clinical trials [13].

Cidofovir (Vistide)

This drug inhibits DNA synthesis by inserting itself into the DNA chain as replication occurs. Its dose-dependent nephrotoxicity limits its use, so it is usually administered with oral probenecid and hydration [12]. Caution is advised when using cidofovir with tenofovir disoproxil fumarate in HIV patients on antiretroviral therapy (ART). In patients with HIV infection and AKI, it may be necessary to change their ART regimen to one that does not include tenofovir disoproxil fumarate; consultation with an HIV specialist is recommended [10].

Brincidofovir (CMX001 or Tembexa)

Brincidofovir is a prodrug of cidofovir with lower nephrotoxicity but may cause elevated liver enzymes (such as transaminases and bilirubin), necessitating liver enzyme monitoring [10, 12]. However, obtaining brincidofovir can be challenging.

Vaccinia immune globulin intravenous (VIGIV)

VIGIV is primarily used for immunocompromised adults and children or those who cannot receive antiviral treatment (including tecovirimat) or for whom antiviral treatment is ineffective, or in severe cases, in combination with antiviral drugs and/or other therapies [8].

Mpox in patients with HIV

Mpox patients with HIV who have not received ART should start ART as soon as possible to improve immune function, ideally in conjunction with mpox treatment. Based on the severity of immune compromise and uncontrolled viral replication, prompt use of tecovirimat (possibly in intravenous form) may be considered, potentially in combination with cidofovir or brincidofovir and VIGIV. It is important to note that immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS) potentially induced by ART may worsen the condition of mpox patients [14].

Drug interactions

Medications used for severe mpox may interact with some drugs. Intensivists should be aware of these drug interactions; for example, tecovirimat can reduce the concentration of midazolam in the blood, diminishing its effectiveness. Additionally, tecovirimat can increase the concentration of repaglinide in the blood, leading to hypoglycemia [7, 15]. The drug interactions for severe mpox can be found in Table 1 [16,17,18,19].

Table 1 Drug interactions of available drug therapeutics for severe mpox
Full size table

Intensivists who are caring for mpox patients should consider receiving the modified vaccinia Ankara (MVA) vaccine (JYNNEOS, Bavarian Nordic) to reduce the risk of infection [14]. For individuals with compromised immune systems, including those with HIV, primary immunodeficiencies, or those undergoing immunosuppressive therapy, the MVA vaccine is considered safe [20].

No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

Africa CDC:

Africa Centers for Disease Control

AGPs:

Aerosol-generating procedures

AIIRs:

Airborne infection isolation rooms

AKI:

Acute kidney injury

ARDS:

Acute respiratory distress syndrome

ART:

Antiretroviral therapy

BCUs:

Biocontainment units

HIV:

Human immunodeficiency virus

ICU:

Intensive care unit

IRIS:

Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome

MSM:

Men who have sex with men

MODS:

Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome

MVA:

Modified vaccinia Ankara

OATP:

Organic anion transporting polypeptide

PAPRs:

Powered air-purifying respirators

PCR:

Polymerase chain reaction

PHESC:

Public Health Emergency of Security Concern

PHEIC:

Public Health Emergency of International Concern

PPE:

Personal protective equipment

VIGIV:

Vaccinia immune globulin intravenous

WHO:

World Health Organization

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We are grateful for this study's support provided by the Department of Critical Care Medicine at the Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University.

This study was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (82472184), National Key Research and Development Program of China (2021YFC2501800), Heilongjiang Provincial Postdoctoral Science Foundation of China (LBH-Q19137), Heilongjiang Province Science Fund for Distinguished Young Scholars (JQ2021H002), Youth Medical Research Special Fund (Z-2018-35-1902) and Harbin Medical University Youth Fund (PYQN2023-9).

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Harbin Medical University Graduate School, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150086, Heilongjiang Province, China

    Siyao Zeng

  2. Department of Critical Care Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150086, Heilongjiang Province, China

    Yue Li, Zhipeng Yao, Junbo Zheng & Hongliang Wang

Authors
  1. Siyao ZengView author publications

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  2. Yue LiView author publications

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  3. Zhipeng YaoView author publications

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  4. Junbo ZhengView author publications

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  5. Hongliang WangView author publications

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Contributions

SYZ and HLW proposed this study. SYZ searched for literature and obtained information. YL and ZPY have created the figure and table. SYZ drafted the manuscript, and HLW and JBZ revised it. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Junbo Zheng or Hongliang Wang.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest. Figure 1 was created using Figdraw (www.figdraw.com).

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Zeng, S., Li, Y., Yao, Z. et al. What every intensivist needs to know about mpox. Crit Care 28, 356 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13054-024-05114-8

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每位重症医学专家都需要了解的麻风病知识
mpox 病毒是一种具有 DNA 基因组的人畜共患正痘病毒。根据基因特征,痘病毒被分为两个主要支系:支系 I 和支系 II。支系 I 又分为支系 Ia 和支系 Ib [1]。支系 I 主要分布在中非,而支系 II 主要在西非流行 [2]。Ⅱ支系的Ⅱb亚支系导致了2022年至2023年的全球麻风腮疫情,其间86%的病例发生在男男性行为者(MSM)中[1]。在已报告的痘病病例中,超过一半的人同时感染了人类免疫缺陷病毒(HIV)[3]。2024 年在刚果民主共和国及其邻国爆发的 mpox 主要由 Ia 支原体引起 [4]。仅在 2024 年,截至 9 月 15 日,刚果民主共和国就报告了 25 757 例痘病病例,其中 806 人死亡[3]。2024 年 4 月,科学家通过分析 2023 年底至 2024 年初在刚果民主共和国南基伍省采集的样本,确定了 I 支系的一个新变种,命名为 Ib。在过去几个月中,由 Ib 变种引起的感染报告有所增加。感染 Ib 变体的女性比例明显更高(52%),其中近三分之一的人是性工作者[1]。8 月 15 日,瑞典报告了首例由 Ib 变种引起的麻风病病例。8 月 22 日,泰国确诊了首例 Ib 变种天花病例 [4]。与 2022 年导致全球痘疫情爆发的 IIb 支系相比,Ia 支系具有更强的人际传播性,死亡率和严重程度也更高。随着天花疫情的加剧,截至 2024 年 8 月 31 日,全球 123 个国家共报告 106 310 例确诊病例,234 人经实验室确诊死亡[3]。在非洲,2024 年的确诊和疑似水痘病例已超过 17 500 例,远远超过了 2023 年报告的 15 000 例。面对不断升级的形势,非洲疾病预防控制中心(Africa Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,ADC)于 2024 年 8 月 13 日首次宣布天花为 "安全关注的突发公共卫生事件"(Public Health Emergency of Security Concern,PHESC)。次日,世界卫生组织(WHO)宣布天花疫情为 "国际关注的突发公共卫生事件"(PHEIC),敦促全球合作防止疫情进一步扩散[5]。当前的天花疫情可能会给全球的重症医学专家带来新的挑战。天花主要通过人与动物或人与人之间的传播进行传播。动物与人之间的传播可通过直接接触受感染的动物、被咬伤或抓伤或食用受感染动物未煮熟的肉类而发生。人与人之间的传播主要是通过直接接触感染者的皮肤或粘膜病变、口腔分泌物、上呼吸道分泌物(如鼻涕和粘液)以及被病毒污染的物品(如床上用品)。性接触在传播中起着重要作用,尤其是在 IIb 族疫情和目前的 Ib 族疫情中。此外,长时间近距离接触呼吸道飞沫和母婴传播也是重要的传播途径[6]。在治疗麻风病人时,重症监护医生应穿戴适当的个人防护设备(PPE),包括 N95 呼吸器或同等设备、护眼设备、手套和防护服。应正确穿戴个人防护设备,确保完全覆盖暴露部位,以尽量减少污染。在支气管肺泡灌洗、插管或拔管等可能产生气溶胶的程序 (AGP) 中,建议使用电动空气净化呼吸器 (PAPR) 提供额外保护。在使用插管盒或视频喉镜等防护屏障进行这些操作时应格外小心,以尽量减少接触。在发生长时间密切接触的医疗环境中,尤其是在 AGP 过程中,传播的风险会增加。因此,遵守严格的个人防护设备协议至关重要[7]。为防止空气传播,最好使用带负压的空气传播隔离室(AIIRs)。在高风险环境中,尤其是免疫力严重低下的患者或患有播散性疾病的患者,可使用生物隔离室(BCUs)[7]。然而,必须注意的是,COVID-19 的管理在不同时期和不同地区有很大差异。因此,在流行性腮腺炎中,目前的指导原则强调坚持使用呼吸道防护用品(如 N95 或同等用品),尽量减少 AGPs,优化隔离程序以减少非医院传播[7]。
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来源期刊
Critical Care
Critical Care 医学-危重病医学
CiteScore
20.60
自引率
3.30%
发文量
348
审稿时长
1.5 months
期刊介绍: Critical Care is an esteemed international medical journal that undergoes a rigorous peer-review process to maintain its high quality standards. Its primary objective is to enhance the healthcare services offered to critically ill patients. To achieve this, the journal focuses on gathering, exchanging, disseminating, and endorsing evidence-based information that is highly relevant to intensivists. By doing so, Critical Care seeks to provide a thorough and inclusive examination of the intensive care field.
期刊最新文献
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