Antibiotic residues and antibiotic resistance genes in African water systems: Implications for safe drinking water, aquatic ecosystems, and Sustainable Development Goals

Abstract

The overuse of antimicrobial compounds, over the years, has caused an accumulation of antibiotic residues (AR) in African waters. The use of antibiotics grew substantially from 2000 to 2018, in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) with a 46 % increase in daily consumption, from 9.8 to 14.3 defined daily doses (DDD) per 1000 people. AR arrive in effluents from different sources or as metabolized human and animal administration products. The uncontrolled seepage of antibiotic residues into wastewaters promotes the dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), thus enhancing the dissemination of antibiotic resistance and complicates treatment efforts globally. The review summarizes the current literature on the status of the African water systems, especially in Africa. Critical information on the emergence of AR/ARG and their implications to attaining millenium sustainable development goals were addressed. Further, the mechanisms of AR/ARG transmission and spread in the African waters were elucidated to be enhanced by predisposing factors widely available in Africa. Specifically, selective pressure mounted by the AR and ARGs, enhanced by open defecation, poor waste management and policy gaps, impact key biological processes and the knowledge gap existing on the effects of the AR on aquatic plants, microbial communities, fishes, and invertebrates were adequately discussed. Remarkably, direct impacts of AR and ARG on biogeochemistry and the overall quality of aquatic life were noted. Modern monitoring and detection methods were extensively discussed, including the challenges associated with effective water treatment. Here, we also discussed eco-friendly management strategies and identifies research gaps, providing a roadmap for future studies.