Material Cycles, Environmental Emissions, and Ecological Risks of Bisphenol A (BPA) in China and Implications for Sustainable Plastic Management

Abstract

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a high-production-volume plastic chemical, with ∼98% of its usage in China allocated to producing polycarbonate and epoxy resin, and its fugitive release threatens ecosystems. However, knowledge of its anthropogenic cycles, environmental emissions, and ecological risks remains incomplete, hindering effective plastic lifecycle management. Herein, material flow analysis, multimedia environmental modeling, and ecological risk assessment were integrated to comprehensively map BPA dynamics in China. Results reveal a ∼ 90-fold increase in BPA consumption between 1992 and 2022 and major applications shifted from optics and packaging to automotive, construction, and electronics. China held ∼34 Mt of in-use BPA stock in 2022 (∼24 kg per capita), with no indication of reaching saturation. BPA release occurred throughout its lifecycle, and soil and water were primary sinks. Aquatic BPA concentrations exceeded the limit in national pollutant emission standards in ∼8.4% of Chinese mainland areas in 2022, and ∼4.5% of areas suffered very high chronic ecological risks to aquatic organisms. Scenario analysis indicates that a 90% reduction in BPA emission factors would be required to avoid BPA contamination in all areas of focus. Our findings contribute as a scientific basis for sustainable plastic management and highlight the need for updated techniques, intensified monitoring, and standardized regulations.