Open challenges and opportunities in photovoltaic recycling

Abstract

Photovoltaics — the fastest-growing renewable energy — has seen rapid growth in global cumulative installations, owing to continuous technological advancements in module and cell designs and a decreasing levelized cost of energy. However, this growth brings challenges associated with end-of-life (EOL) management of photovoltaic (PV) modules. Recycling, an important pillar of the circular economy, has a pivotal role in the liberation and recovery of embedded materials present in the EOL PV modules. In this Review, we discuss the current PV recycling strategies, covering liberation of materials and metal recovery approaches, for both pilot trials and laboratory-scale demonstrations. We then highlight their characteristic parameters, performance and key differences, as well as open challenges to PV recycling in terms of cost-effectiveness, policy regulations and data availability. Next, we summarize the technological innovations needed to achieve adequate separation of embedded materials and efficient material recovery. Finally, we propose a way forward to achieve cost-effective, energy-efficient and environmentally friendly recycling of EOL PV modules. This Review provides a critical assessment of the existing photovoltaic recycling technologies, discusses open challenges and makes key recommendations, such as the promotion of design for recycling, widening data availability, policy developments and incentives for upcycling.