Synthesis, properties and toxicological perspectives of few-layered black phosphorus and black phosphorus quantum dots: A review

Abstract

The exploration of advanced materials has sparked immense interest in recent years, with a focus on uncovering their potential bio applications and biocompatibility profiles. Among these materials, black phosphorus (BP) stands out due to its unique electronic, optical, and mechanical properties. In this review, we shed light on the synthesis methods, properties and toxicological perspectives of few-layered black phosphorus (FL-BP) and black phosphorus quantum dots (BP-QDs). We also, discuss the structure and properties of BP, including its atomic and electronic characteristics. Furthermore, we examine the synthesis and properties of FL-BP and BP-QDs, emphasizing their size, morphology, and optical properties. Importantly, we address the toxicological aspects of FL-BP, BP nanosheets (BPNs), and BP-QDs, exploring factors influencing toxicity such as size, surface modifications, and dose–response relationships. This review underscores the urgent necessity to establish comprehensive biocompatibility profiles of BP-based nanomaterials to guide their development for diverse bio applications. Additionally, we highlight challenges and future directions in this rapidly evolving field.