Environmental occurrence, hazards, and remediation strategies for the removal of cadmium from the polluted environment

Abstract

Understanding the sources of cadmium (Cd) is crucial for implementing effective control measures and minimizing its environmental impact. The present study was aimed to investigate the environmental impacts of cadmium sources and to evaluate potential remedial measures for cadmium contamination. The results showed that the average amount (mg/kg) of Cd in rocks was 92 (Idaho), 38 (North Carolina), Coal 3.8 (China), 0.28 (India), groundwater 0.98 (China), 0.8 (Bangladesh), 0.3 (India), 0.16 (Egypt), Soil 6.3 (Nigeria), 2.5 (Ecuador), 0.8 (Selangor), and 5.0 (Kelantan), Fertilizer 5 (China), 192 (USA), 11 (Morocco), 8.7 (Iran), and 14 (Algeria), wastewater 20 (Pakistan), 37 (India), and I.7 (China), Plants 0.81 (Nigeria), 1.2 (Pakistan), 0.05 (Romania). The mode of occurrence of Cd is geogenic, namely oxidation of mineralized rocks, stream sediments, volcanic materials, and soil, while anthropogenic sources include commercial and industrial wastes, hospital wastes, fertilizer, construction wastes, paints, and pigments, batteries, steel works, contaminated food, and cigarettes. Exposure to cadmium can lead to a range of health issues, including gastrointestinal distress, lung and kidney cancer, mutagenic and teratogenic effects, liver dysfunction, and fragile bone deformation. The Cd contamination can be removed through various processes such as bioremediation, phytoremediation, nano-particle remediation, soil washing, electrokinetic remediation, ion exchange, and phytostabilization may remediate the Cd level up to the maximum level. The study concluded that the toxic elements, such as Cd can be effectively remediated from contaminated media using the aforementioned methods, thereby limiting the health consequences associated with cadmium. These approaches help to remediate the health risks associated with Cd exposure. In-depth research is needed to explore the Cd in the biogeochemical cycle for better geo-management.