Contamination degree and health implications of indoor air pollution: Operating field measurements in market environments

Abstract

This study investigated the contamination levels, ecological and human health risks, and potential sources of eleven potentially toxic metals (PETs), particulate matter 2.5 (PM_2.5), and carbon dioxide (CO₂) collected from urban-rural-periphery markets exposed to various anthropogenic activities, accentuated by the ever-increasing stress of anthropogenic activities. Contamination aspects, associated ecological risks, and hazards to human health will be discussed herein, besides determining and presenting possible sources of PM_2.5 and PETs: Cr, Cu, Co Cd, Ni, Pb, Zn, Mg, Al, Mn, and Fe. The study describes the settled dust particles from various indoor dust-collecting environments of a few supermarket chains in Kastamonu Province, Türkiye. The indoor and outdoor average levels (I/O), ratio of CO₂ and PM_2.5 concentrations was between 1.05–1.28 and 1.23–1.70 across these markets. The overall concentrations of PETs (mg kg⁻¹) indoors were observed in the following descending order: Fe (6492.73) > Al (2290.80) > Mg (719.86) > Zn (150.20) > Mn (162.13) > Ni (38.73) > Cr (18.06) > Pb (28.33) > Cu (13.67) > Co (7.87) > Cd (1.69). The I/O PM_2.5, CO_2, and PETs concentration ratios generally exhibited a multi-distribution, with peaks between 4:00–7:00 p.m., likely associated with customer density. The mean levels of children's exposure to dust particles from urban markets occurred principally through ingestion (7.53E+02), followed by dermal contact (1.10E−03) and inhalation (7.95E−06). The findings of this pioneering study offer crucial data to inform future monitoring and policy for protecting coastal ecosystems and public health.