Organotin(IV) complexes: Emerging Frontiers in anticancer therapeutics and bioimaging applications

Abstract

Cancer, a complex and heterogeneous disease, imposes a significant global health burden, necessitating sustained investment in innovative therapeutic agent development. Pharmacotherapy remains a cornerstone therapeutic approach, yet its clinical efficacy is frequently compromised by emergent resistance and adverse effects, necessitating innovative cancer therapeutic development. The accidental discovery of cisplatin's anticancer properties has catalyzed research into non‑platinum-based complexes, aiming to bypass limitations inherent to platinum-based therapies, including elevated toxicity and tumor resistance. Organotin(IV) complexes exhibit profound therapeutic potential due to their distinct physicochemical attributes and capacity to form stable, structurally unique complexes, rendering them valuable biologically active agents in pharmaceutical development. This comprehensive review presents an in-depth examination of recent advancements in organotin-based complexes, highlighting their anticancer efficacy against multiple carcinomas, diverse ligand coordination strategies, and underlying molecular mechanisms of apoptosis induction. Beyond their anticancer efficacy, we discuss the bioimaging capabilities of organotin complexes within cellular and tissue environments using confocal and multiphoton microscopy, providing mechanistic insights into their biological interactions. To our knowledge, this comprehensive review is the first to encompass diverse organotin complexing ligands, anticancer properties, and bioimaging capabilities, paving the way for multifunctional biomedical agent development. Finally, a summary of challenges and future directions for organotin-based therapeutics is presented, facilitating advancements in anticancer and bioimaging applications.