Comprehensive analysis on impact of various catalytic assemblies for photodegradation of levofloxacin antibiotic from aquatic environments: Constructing strategies and surface/interface engineering, limitations, new trends, and future outlooks

Abstract

Levofloxacin (LEV) antibiotics have become a worldwide concern due to their ecotoxicity, chemical stability, and antibacterial resistance potential. Photocatalysis, as a green, sustainable, and economical method owing to the conversion of low-density renewable solar energy into high-density chemical and electrical power, is the frequently reported method to address environmental issues. However, after case investigation and much research on heterogeneous photocatalysts, it has not advanced from the bench to pilot scale and corresponding practical applications due to unfavorable carrier transfer dynamics and poor visible light absorption. Surface or interface is fundamental in enhancing visible light-harvesting, decreasing interfacial resistance, boosting interface interaction due to chemical reactions, and charge carriers migration on the surface and interface of different semiconductors (SCs). However, photocatalytic quantum efficiency and surface charge mobility of photocatalysts were still low and insufficient. Unfortunately, most of the literature has focused on innumerable cutting-edge processes, bandgap (BG) engineering, and suppression of charge recombination after light irradiation. However, the role and influence of surface/interface engineering have lagged. For the first time, this review paper notably concentrated on the various surface/interface designs (e.g., oxygen vacancies, doping, Z-scheme, S-scheme, Schottky junctions, etc.), synergistic advancement mechanism of surface/interface parameters and their significance in enhancing the thermodynamics functions, kinetic rate, stability of engineering-modified photocatalysts in the removal of LEV even in trace amounts with focus on the degradation pathways. Ultimately, the challenges/opportunities of photocatalysis investigation regarding surface/interface engineering will be debated to supply an advantageous research direction.