Safety and efficacy of single-dose primaquine to interrupt Plasmodium falciparum malaria transmission in children compared with adults: a systematic review and individual patient data meta-analysis

Abstract

Background

Adding a single dose of primaquine to artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT) for the treatment of falciparum malaria can reduce the transmission of Plasmodium falciparum and could limit the spread of artemisinin partial resistance, including in Africa, where the disease burden is greatest. We aimed to compare the safety and efficacy of single-dose primaquine plus ACT between young children (aged <5 years) and older children (aged 5 years to <15 years) and adults (aged ≥15 years), and between low and moderate-to-high transmission areas.

Methods

For this systematic review and individual patient data meta-analysis, we searched PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, WHO Global Index Medicus, OpenGrey.eu, ClinicalTrials.gov, and the WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform, from database inception to April 3, 2024, with no language restrictions. We included prospective studies on efficacy against falciparum malaria that enrolled at least one child younger than 15 years and involved a study group given a single dose of primaquine (≤0·75 mg/kg) plus ACT. Studies involving mass drug administration, healthy volunteers, or patients with severe malaria or mixed (with non-falciparum) infections were excluded. For inclusion in the efficacy analysis, data on transmission potential (as determined by gametocytaemia, infectivity, or both) at enrolment and follow-up (day 3, day 7, or day 14) were required; the safety analysis required data on haemoglobin concentrations or haematocrit values at enrolment and at one or more follow-up visits by day 7, any data on adverse events, or both. After independent screening of the search results by two reviewers, the investigators of eligible studies were invited to contribute individual patient data. We quantified day 7 gametocyte carriage, probability of infecting a mosquito, decreases (>25%) in haemoglobin concentration associated with anaemia, and adverse events until day 28 using regression analyses, with random study-site intercepts to account for clustered data. These analyses were registered with PROSPERO, CRD42021279363 (safety) and CRD42021279369 (efficacy).

Findings

Of 5697 records identified by the search, 30 studies were eligible for analysis. Of these, individual patient data were shared for 23 studies, including 6056 patients from 16 countries: 1171 (19·3%) young children (aged <5 years), 2827 (46·7%) older children (aged 5 years to <15 years), and 2058 (34·0%) adults (aged ≥15 years). Adding a single low dose of primaquine (0·2–0·25 mg/kg) to ACTs reduced day 7 gametocyte positivity (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 0·34, 95% CI 0·22–0·52; p<0·001) and infectivity to mosquitoes over time (aOR per day 0·02, 0·01–0·07, p<0·001). No difference was found in the effect of single low-dose primaquine both on gametocyte positivity in young children compared with older children (1·08, 0·52–2·23; p=0·84) and adults (0·50, 0·20–1·25; p=0·14) and between low-transmission and moderate-to-high transmission settings (1·07, 0·46–2·52; p=0·86), and on infectivity to mosquitoes in young children compared with older children (1·36, 0·07–27·71; p=0·84) and adults (0·31, 0·01–8·84; p=0·50) and between low-transmission and moderate-to-high transmission settings (0·18, 0·01–2·95; p=0·23). Gametocyte clearance was also similar for different ACTs (dihydroartemisinin–piperaquine vs artemether–lumefantrine) when combined with a primaquine target dose of 0·25 mg/kg (1·56, 0·65–3·79; p=0·32 at day 7). However, patients given a primaquine dose of less than 0·2 mg/kg with dihydroartemisinin–piperaquine were more likely to have gametocytaemia than those treated with artemether–lumefantrine (5·68, 1·38–23·48; p=0·016 at day 7). There was no increase in anaemia-associated declines in haemoglobin concentration (>25%) at a primaquine dose of 0·25 mg/kg, regardless of age group, transmission setting, and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase status. The risks of adverse events of grade 2 or higher and of serious adverse events were similar between primaquine and no-primaquine groups, including in young children.

Interpretation

Regardless of malaria transmission intensity and age group, a single dose of 0·25 mg/kg primaquine is safe and efficacious for reducing P falciparum transmission. These findings underscore the need for primaquine formulations suitable for young children, and also provide supportive evidence to expand the use of single low-dose primaquine in regions with a moderate-to-high transmission rate that are threatened by artemisinin partial resistance.

Funding

The EU and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.