The Ends Against the Middle: The Case of Municipal Golf

Abstract

The theory and empirical analysis of the public provision of private goods have primarily considered the provision of education and healthcare. In this paper, we extend the application of the theories presented in Epple and Romano (1996a, 1996b) to the provision of a more private good—a golf course. While there may be some public social benefits of recreation including golf, for the most part, golf is a private good. We analyze golf course ownership in Pennsylvania, a state with a diversity of municipalities. Our main findings support the ends-against-the-middle hypothesis in which municipalities with a majority of low-income voters and high-income voters are less likely to own a municipal golf course. Municipalities with a majority of middle-income voters are more likely to own a municipal golf course.