Machine learning for numerical weather and climate modelling: a review

Abstract. Machine learning (ML) is increasing in popularity in the field of weather and climate modelling. Applications range from improved solvers and preconditioners, to parameterization scheme emulation and replacement, and more recently even to full ML-based weather and climate prediction models. While ML has been used in this space for more than 25 years, it is only in the last 10 or so years that progress has accelerated to the point that ML applications are becoming competitive with numerical knowledge-based alternatives. In this review, we provide a roughly chronological summary of the application of ML to aspects of weather and climate modelling from early publications through to the latest progress at the time of writing. We also provide an overview of key ML terms, methodologies, and ethical considerations. Finally, we discuss some potentially beneficial future research directions. Our aim is to provide a primer for researchers and model developers to rapidly familiarize and update themselves with the world of ML in the context of weather and climate models.