Unravelling the Electrical Conductivity of Earth and Planets

This review presents the progress made in the last decade in the field of large-scale electromagnetic (EM) induction with natural sources, which fluctuate at periods from seconds to years and originate in oceans, ionosphere and magnetosphere. These mechanisms produce field variations that can be used to image subsurface electrical structure of Earth and planets across scales and depths from the shallow crust to the lower mantle. In the last decade, we have seen a substantial progress made in different areas related to methods, observations and 3-D numerical modelling of EM phenomena at crustal and mantle scales. Specifically, new methods for handling complex ionospheric and magnetospheric sources were proposed, accompanied by more efficient forward and inverse modelling tools that allowed us to combine several broadband sources and constrain electrical conductivity on multiple scales simultaneously. Magnetic signals due to oceanic tides were established as a new source to probe conductivity of the sub-oceanic upper mantle. Further, the launch of ESA Swarm satellites in 2013 and their successful ongoing operation have marked a new era in the field of large-scale EM induction, unlocking a set of new opportunities, but also posing new challenges. These developments were backed by new lab measurements of electrical conductivity for mantle minerals at temperatures and pressures that are getting closer to the relevant pressure and temperature conditions in the mantle, alleviating the need for inaccurate extrapolations. The latter enabled more plausible quantitative estimates of water content, melt fractions and temperature in the mantle. In parallel, crust and mantle conductivity models along with developed modelling techniques have become an integral part of geomagnetic field and geomagnetically induced currents (GICs) modelling workflows, establishing new inter-disciplinary knowledge domains.