Extracellular vesicles in heart failure.

Physiologically, extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been implicated as crucial mediators of immune response, cell homeostasis, angiogenesis, cell differentiation and growth, and tissue repair. In heart failure (HF) they may act as regulators of cardiac remodeling, microvascular inflammation, micro environmental changes, tissue fibrosis, atherosclerosis, neovascularization of plaques, endothelial dysfunction, thrombosis, and reciprocal heart-remote organ interaction. The chapter summaries the nomenclature, isolation, detection of EVs, their biologic role and function physiologically as well as in the pathogenesis of HF. Current challenges to the utilization of EVs as diagnostic and predictive biomarkers in HF are also discussed.