Placental transfer and hazards of silver nanoparticles exposure during pregnancy: a review

Many products contain silver nanoparticles, which are adsorbed by living organisms and then go through biological barriers. In particular, penetration of silver nanoparticles through the placental barrier is likely to damage the offspring. Here, we review hazards of silver nanoparticles with focus on exposure during pregnancy, toxicokinetics at maternal and fetal layers, ex vivo and in vivo placenta transfer models, and factors affecting the transfer. Exposure occurs by oral uptake, inhalation, dermal contact, and systemic administration. Toxicokinetics include absorption, distribution in tissues, metabolism and excretion. The accumulation efficiency is primarily influenced by the mode of exposure. Injection exhibits the highest bioavailability, followed by inhalation and oral uptake. Particles within the range of tens of nanometers are capable of crossing the placenta, according to an ex vivo placental perfusion model. In contrast, larger particles in the range of hundreds of nanometers are expelled outside. Due to the size restriction of the trophoblast channel, which typically ranges from 15 to 25 nm, it is possible for silver nanoparticles with an average size of around 20 nm to passively enter the placenta through the pericellular pathway, such as diffusion. On the other hand, larger silver nanoparticles may be delivered to the placenta through endocytosis, which can occur via phagocytosis, receptor-mediated or independent mechanisms.