The determinants of legislation for radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMFs) with the onset of 5G: An empirical analysis with a worldwide cross-sectional dataset.

The unprecedented exposure of radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) to humans from mobile communications raises serious public concern about the possibility of unexpected adverse health effects and has stimulated authorities to adopt precautionary exposure limits. These limits are distinctly different across countries, and the causes of these differences are unclear from the literature. This article is the first empirical analysis on the determinants of RF-EMF exposure legislation, using a novel cross-sectional database of 164 countries worldwide. The analysis shows that decentralization and mobile competition in countries with low mobile network deployment tend to promote more stringent RF-EMF exposure limits across the dataset with 164 countries. In more decentralized countries, the regions had a greater influence on national legislation and could accommodate local demands with the advent of mobile technology in the 2000s. In contrast, decentralization and mobile competition in countries with high levels of mobile network deployment tend to relax RF-EMF exposure limits in the sample of 61 countries with fifth-generation (5G) technology. Indeed, restrictive RF-EMF exposure limits are constraining 5G deployment in a context of the widespread adoption of mobile-broadband technologies. These results should be useful for policymakers and mobile operators alike to anticipate the outcome of legislation in countries that have yet to introduce 5G technology. The results should also be useful when reviewing policies and strategies for the implementation of the upcoming 6G technology in frequency bands that will be increasingly higher (above 6 GHz up to THz for very local usage), and hence where the health effects on humans are less well studied.