Using portable X-ray fluorescence elemental analysis to explore porous skeletal lesions: Interplay of sex, age at death, and cause of death

Objectives

Search for possible associations between bone elemental concentration and the presence of porous skeletal lesions (PSLs), considering the sex, age, and cause of death (COD) of the individuals.

Materials and Methods

The sample comprised 107 non-adult individuals (56 females, 51 males) aged 0–20 (x̄ = 13.2, SD = 5.8) from the Coimbra and Lisbon Identified Skeletal Collections. Cribra cranii, orbitalia, humeralis, and femoralis were recorded as present/absent, and elemental concentrations were assessed by portable x-ray fluorescence (pXRF). A multivariate statistical approach was applied.

Results

Well-preserved skeletons with minimal diagenesis showed no sex-related elemental variations or PSL associations. In contrast, age-at-death correlated with elevated Ca, P, Sr, and Pb levels. Cribra cranii increased with age while other cribra declined post-adolescence. Higher concentrations of Fe and lower of S were linked to cribra cranii. Respiratory infections as COD increased the odds of expressing cribra femoralis (OR = 5.25, CI = 1.25–15.14), cribra cranii (OR = 2.91, CI = 0.97–8.69), and cribra orbitalia (OR = 2.76, CI = 1.06–7.24).

Discussion

Feasible pXRF results and low cribra intraobserver error assure replicability. Elevated Ca, P, and Sr in older individuals may relate to skeletal growth, while increased Pb suggests bioaccumulation. Cribra's increase with age reflects different rates of marrow conversion and bone remodeling. Higher Fe and lower S in individuals with cribra cranii possibly reflects poor nutrition, early alcohol use, and sideroblastic anemia, aligning with 19th–20th-century Portugal's living conditions. Respiratory infections increased cribra expression, revealing intricate interplays among inflammation, anemia(s), marrow expansion, and diet. This research highlights a complex scenario and blazes a new path for cribra interpretation.