Flooding-depth effects on water quality, soil carbon sequestration, rice nutrient uptake and yield at the Everglades Agricultural Area of Florida

In the Everglades Agricultural Area (EAA), Florida, cultivating rice in flooded paddies is becoming increasingly popular to conserve water and soil health. Flood depth is a critical factor affecting the discharged water quality, soil carbon, and yield production. However, few studies have comprehensively investigated the optimal flood depth in EAA, considering multi-functional indices. To address this gap, we investigated drainage water quality, water quantity, nutrient uptake, soil carbon, and rice yield in rice paddies in histosol soils over a two-year period at four flood depths (5, 10, 15, and 20 ​cm). For each flood depth, averaged over two years, total outflow loadings of suspended solids, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium were significantly reduced by 40 ​%, 38 ​%, 36 ​%, and 32 ​%, respectively, compared to inflow water loadings (p ​< ​0.001). Total phosphorus uptake averaged ∼11.21 kg ha⁻¹ in rice shoots and 0.48 kg ha⁻¹ in roots, while total potassium uptake averaged ∼4.28 kg ha⁻¹ in shoots and 0.13 kg ha⁻¹ in roots. Soil organic carbon (SOC) in 5, 10, 15, and 20 ​cm flood treatments increased annually at a rate of 3.85 ​%, 5.64 ​%, 6.86 ​%, and 6.86 ​%, respectively; for these same treatments, soil active organic carbon (AOC) decreased annually at rates of 11.75 ​%, 8.63 ​%, 20.07 ​%, and 8.48 ​%, and rice grain yield was 4488, 5103, 5450, and 5386 ​kg ​ha⁻¹, respectively. Overall, considering the water quality, SOC, AOC, and rice yield production, irrigating rice paddies at a flood depth of 15 ​cm most effectively improves water quality, increases carbon sequestration, reduces active carbon, and yields more rice than other flood depths. By evaluating the effects of flood depth on the soil–water–plant nexus in a holistic manner, we propose a more sustainable and environmentally friendly mode of rice cultivation within the EAA.