Climate Smart Agriculture最新文献

{"title":"Climate-smart agriculture as disaster risk reduction: Effectiveness varies by hazard type in Pakistan","authors":"Aziz Ahmed ,&nbsp;Majid Mahar ,&nbsp;Peters Egbedi ,&nbsp;Amanullah Mahar ,&nbsp;Md Ali Haider ,&nbsp;Hafeez Ahmed Talpur ,&nbsp;Sirilak Chaiboontha ,&nbsp;Khalid Usman Shar ,&nbsp;Habibullah Abbasi ,&nbsp;Shakeel Ahmed Talpur","doi":"10.1016/j.csag.2025.100093","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.csag.2025.100093","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Climate change increasingly threatens agricultural systems globally, with Pakistan ranking among the most climate-vulnerable countries. This study systematically compared climate-smart agriculture (CSA) effectiveness across different disaster types in Sindh Province, Pakistan: riverine flooding (Dadu), drought (Tharparkar), and coastal flooding (Thatta). A multi-scale analysis combined climate data, area-weighted agricultural vulnerability assessment using 3889 district-crop yield records (2004–2023), and farmer surveys (<em>n</em> ​= ​88). Climate analysis showed significant Arabian Sea warming (0.41 ​°C ​decade⁻¹, <em>p</em> ​&lt; ​0.01) with high precipitation variability (coefficient of variation ​≈ ​72 ​%). The corrected area-weighted vulnerability assessment ranked Tharparkar most vulnerable (#1, index: 66.23), followed by Thatta (#8, 31.69) and Dadu (#19, 24.77) among 23 districts. Drought analysis identified 2 of 20 years meeting drought criteria (Standardized Precipitation Index ≤ −0.5) in Tharparkar. CSA adoption varied significantly by disaster type (Kruskal-Wallis <em>H</em> ​= ​74.06, <em>p</em> ​&lt; ​0.001). Strong positive correlation between CSA practices and disaster resilience emerged in drought-vulnerable Tharparkar (<em>r</em> ​= ​0.756, <em>p</em> ​&lt; ​0.001, explaining 57 ​% of variance), while flood-prone districts showed negligible relationships (Thatta: <em>r</em> ​= ​−0.089, <em>p</em> ​&gt; ​0.05; Dadu: zero variance). Future projections indicate substantial sea-level rise of ∼331–751 ​mm by 2100 across Shared Socioeconomic Pathway scenarios. Results demonstrate CSA practices effectively reduce climate disaster risks in drought-prone systems, but effectiveness varies by disaster type, requiring tailored implementation approaches. This research provides the first systematic evidence comparing CSA effectiveness across different disaster contexts, supporting targeted rather than uniform adaptation policies.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":100262,"journal":{"name":"Climate Smart Agriculture","volume":"3 1","pages":"Article 100093"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-12-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145718986","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The impacts of climate change on livestock: An interdisciplinary, scoping review of health, production, and adaptation strategies","authors":"Alexandru Anuta ,&nbsp;Xiuquan Wang ,&nbsp;Pelin Kinay","doi":"10.1016/j.csag.2025.100082","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.csag.2025.100082","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Climate change has been recognized to negatively affect livestock animals, as it can severely impair their health and productivity by disrupting homeostasis. This study aims to linearly compile the sources of environmental stress on livestock animals into a more comprehensible format, which can be of great value to new policymakers, practitioners, or researchers alike. Literature curation was performed using online databases while focusing on publications made in the last 25 years. Unlike conventional reviews that tend to address single species or regional case studies, this paper integrates cross-species comparisons to identify shared physiological responses to heat stress and other climate-related stressors. It also contrasts the different temperature–humidity index (THI) standardization methods applied across livestock systems, providing one of the first interdisciplinary syntheses that unify animal physiology, biochemistry, and environmental physics under a single analytical framework. The main research gap addressed by our paper is the relative lack of acknowledgement in terms of the extent of climate stressors affecting livestock in the current literature. Previous work, to the best of our knowledge, does not address the entire radius of environmental stressors, which can range from increased temperatures to region-specific extreme weather events, such as dust storms. By linearly integrating insights from various fields of study, this paper serves as a valuable resource for any reader in the industry who is seeking to learn more about the challenges posed by climate change in the livestock sector, regardless of their experience or tenure.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":100262,"journal":{"name":"Climate Smart Agriculture","volume":"2 4","pages":"Article 100082"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-11-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145415991","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Ten-year rice management enhances soil aggregate stability in salt-alkali soils: Role of Fe/Al oxides and organic carbon","authors":"Hao Hu ,&nbsp;Qiuyun Wang ,&nbsp;Panpan Gao ,&nbsp;Luxin Zhang ,&nbsp;Zhe Wei ,&nbsp;Kelin Hu ,&nbsp;Kaiqin Jiang ,&nbsp;Jingbo Li ,&nbsp;Haojie Feng ,&nbsp;Shuwen Hu","doi":"10.1016/j.csag.2025.100085","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.csag.2025.100085","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Soil aggregates, the “structural skeleton” of the soil matrix, are fundamental to maintaining soil fertility, structural integrity, and ecosystem multifunctionality. Saline-alkali soils, which are widely distributed across arid and semi-arid regions worldwide, represent one of the most critical constraints to agricultural productivity. However, the mechanisms by which long-term rice management regulates aggregate stability in these soils remain poorly understood. To address this gap, we conducted a long-term field experiment in sodic saline-alkali soils of Baicheng, Jilin Province, northeastern China, including six treatments: rice management for 1, 2, 5, 8, and 10 years, and a non-cultivated control (CK). Soil samples (0–10 and 10–20 ​cm) were fractionated by aggregate size, and aggregate-associated SOC and Fe/Al oxides were quantified. Structural equation modeling (SEM) revealed that associations between long-term rice management and increased SOC and Fe/Al oxide contents, both of which were positively correlated with aggregate stability. Fe oxides were associated with the strongest positive correlations to stability, while soil salinity showed negative correlations. These findings suggest a hypothesized organic–inorganic synergistic cementation mechanism in which SOC (via encapsulation and biochemical bonding) and Fe/Al oxides (via mineral bridging) may jointly contribute to soil structure. This study deepens mechanistic understanding of soil physicochemical reconstruction in saline-alkali soils and provides a theoretical basis for sustainable saline soil rehabilitation under salinity stress.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":100262,"journal":{"name":"Climate Smart Agriculture","volume":"2 4","pages":"Article 100085"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-11-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145465926","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Evaluating adaptive planting dates and elevated CO2 impacts on soybean yields under future climate scenarios","authors":"Manavjot Singh ,&nbsp;Xiaomao Lin ,&nbsp;Vaishali Sharda","doi":"10.1016/j.csag.2025.100083","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.csag.2025.100083","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Crop simulation models depend on field-level management data such as planting dates, plant population, and selection of cultivar to capture yield responses under changing climate conditions. While many parameters exhibit relatively low variability from year to year, planting dates vary substantially due to weather conditions and individual management decisions. In the present study, the DSSAT CROPGRO-Soybean model was applied on a gridded scale to evaluate how a spring freeze probability-based early planting date strategy and elevated atmospheric CO₂ levels could mitigate the impacts of projected climate change on soybeans. The simulations incorporated projected climate data from six General Circulation Models (GCMs) under two shared socioeconomic pathways (SSPs), SSP2-4.5 and SSP5-8.5. Spring freeze probabilities were studied to derive location- and year-specific “adaptive planting dates”. Results indicated that elevated CO₂ significantly improved yield over the simulation period (2026–2100). However, the effectiveness of planting dates in mitigating the impact of climate change was statistically significant only under higher warming. When combined, the adaptive planting strategy and CO₂ fertilization improved yield by as much as 79 ​% relative to a fixed-planting, fixed-CO₂ scenario, although it remained below baseline yield levels. Further, the adaptive planting dates help increase the shortened days-to-anthesis period, with a more pronounced effect under SSP5-8.5. These findings highlight the potential of adjusting planting schedules and leveraging CO₂ fertilization to help offset climate-induced yield losses. Nevertheless, these strategies alone cannot entirely negate the climate change-driven yield declines; additional measures such as using longer-maturity group cultivars or breeding thermally resilient varieties may be necessary to sustain rainfed soybean production in the face of climate change.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":100262,"journal":{"name":"Climate Smart Agriculture","volume":"2 4","pages":"Article 100083"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-11-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145415978","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Toxic or synergistic relationship: The interdependence and determinants of dairy climate smart agriculture practices in the North Rift and western parts of Kenya","authors":"Francis Onyango Oduor ,&nbsp;Mark Ollunga Odhiambo ,&nbsp;Philip Mulama Nyangweso","doi":"10.1016/j.csag.2025.100084","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.csag.2025.100084","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Dairy farming underpins rural livelihoods in Kenya but is increasingly vulnerable to climate variability while contributing to greenhouse gas emissions. Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) practices offer pathways for resilience and mitigation, yet most previous studies assess single practices in isolation, overlooking complementarities, trade-offs, and regional differences. This study examines the joint adoption of five CSA practices—feed management, improved breeding, manure management, animal health, and milk value addition—using survey data from 447 dairy farmers in Kisii and Uasin Gishu counties, complemented with high-resolution rainfall and temperature records. A Multivariate Probit (MVP) model revealed high adoption of breeding (87 ​%), animal health (85 ​%), and feed management (81 ​%), while manure management (39 ​%) and milk value addition (22 ​%) lagged. Regional contrasts were evident: Kisii farmers favored manure management (44 ​%), while Uasin Gishu led in feed management (89 ​%) and value addition (39 ​%). Strong complementarities emerged between feed management and breeding, animal health and feed management, and manure management and value addition, with no evidence of substitutability. Adoption was shaped by climate factors (rainfall, temperature), socio-economic characteristics (gender, age, household and herd size, farm size), and institutional access (cooperatives, credit, extension, early warning systems). Findings underscore that bundled CSA strategies are more effective than isolated interventions, providing comparative, policy-relevant insights for promoting climate-resilient dairy farming in Kenya and similar smallholder systems.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":100262,"journal":{"name":"Climate Smart Agriculture","volume":"2 4","pages":"Article 100084"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-11-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145415979","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Impact of future climate warming on soil organic carbon in China based on process-based models","authors":"Zhiran Zhou ,&nbsp;Zipeng Zhang ,&nbsp;Mengyi Wang ,&nbsp;Keqiang Wang ,&nbsp;Junchen Ai ,&nbsp;Ammara Gill ,&nbsp;Kamshat Temirbayeva ,&nbsp;Chuanmei Zhu","doi":"10.1016/j.csag.2025.100086","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.csag.2025.100086","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Soil organic carbon (SOC) is an important component of the carbon pool in terrestrial ecosystems and plays a key role in climate feedbacks under global warming. To quantitatively assess the impact of climate warming on SOC in China, this study constructed six warming scenarios (0–3 ​°C, 0.5 ​°C step), and simulated the spatial and temporal distributions of SOC and changes in reserves by combining the RothC model and the Random Forest (RF) model. The results show that the model has high prediction accuracy in the mild warming scenario (scenarios with temperature increase of 0.5 ​°C, 1 ​°C, and 1.5 ​°C), R² ​= ​0.46–0.60, but the uncertainty increases in the high temperature scenario (scenarios with temperature increase of 2 ​°C, 2.5 ​°C, and 3 ​°C), RMSE rises to 25.2 ​g ​C ​m⁻². With increasing temperature (the range of increase is 0–3 ​°C), SOC in China showed significant spatial variability of “north increasing and south decreasing”, and the overall reserves decreased by about 99.6 ​Tg on average (to be achieved roughly from the mid-to-late 21st century), showing a non-linear fluctuating downward trend. Dominant factors affecting SOC dynamics, with the vegetation factor having the highest explanatory power. The study reveals the mechanism by which climate factors and vegetation synergistically regulate SOC, which provides a quantitative basis for improving SOC modelling and understanding the process of the terrestrial carbon cycle under climate warming.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":100262,"journal":{"name":"Climate Smart Agriculture","volume":"2 4","pages":"Article 100086"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-11-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145465923","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The utility of submersible solar irrigation pumps in accessing deeper groundwater for sustaining dry season rice cultivation in off-grid Bangladeshi haor areas","authors":"Mohammed M. Rahman ,&nbsp;Shafee Hasan ,&nbsp;S.M. Abid Hassan ,&nbsp;Azam Uddin ,&nbsp;A.K.M. Adham","doi":"10.1016/j.csag.2025.100081","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.csag.2025.100081","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>In many countries, Solar (powered) Irrigation Pumps (SIP) are becoming a promising means to replace Diesel Irrigation Pumps (DIP) and facilitate irrigation in off-grid areas. In Bangladeshi off-grid haor areas, dry season Boro rice cultivation (January–April) faces immense challenges as traditional DIP-driven Shallow Tube Wells (STW) often run dry due to falling of groundwater level (GWL) below the practical suction limit (5–7 ​m). This study experimentally investigates the technical suitability of a submersible SIP (3.80 ​kW), designed and installed at a northeast rice-cultivated haor of Bangladesh. A questionnaire baseline survey of 115 farmers in the study area was conducted to get information about existing irrigation conditions. Real-time solar irradiance, GWL and hourly pump discharge were measured with a pyranometer, level logger and volumetric approach, respectively. Measured irradiance was very low (100–450 ​W ​m⁻²) in the early phase of growing season (January–mid February) due to foggy weather, then it increased with the highest values during noon–3:00 p.m. (700–900 ​W ​m⁻²) when the pump could yield its rated discharge (0.014 ​m³ ​s⁻¹). Measured drawdown was remarkably high (4.6–7.0 ​m) due to moderate geologic formation of the aquifer (medium sand). The SIP could potentially irrigate 3.45 ​ha of rice field without any risk of dry running throughout the growing season, a great implication for replacing DIPs having lower command area (≤ 2.5 ​ha). It has been demonstrated that SIP is more attractive compared to DIP technically, economically, and environmentally when its annual usage extends beyond a single crop season.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":100262,"journal":{"name":"Climate Smart Agriculture","volume":"2 4","pages":"Article 100081"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-11-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145465925","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The responses and adaptations of rice (Oryza sativa L.) to drought stress: A review","authors":"Justice Adzigbe ,&nbsp;Felix Frimpong ,&nbsp;Agyemang Danquah ,&nbsp;Eric Yirenkyi Danquah ,&nbsp;Isaac Kojo Asante ,&nbsp;Samuel Oppong Abebrese ,&nbsp;Richard Dormatey ,&nbsp;Charles Afriyie-Debrah ,&nbsp;Priscilla Francisco Ribeiro ,&nbsp;Eric Owusu Danquah ,&nbsp;Kennedy Agyeman ,&nbsp;Ralph Kwame Bam ,&nbsp;Maxwell Darko Asante","doi":"10.1016/j.csag.2025.100080","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.csag.2025.100080","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The rise in global temperature due to human activities poses a threat to the survival and productivity of plants. As sessile organisms, plants are frequently exposed to abiotic stressors, among which drought is the most critical factor limiting rice (<em>Oryza sativa</em> L.) yield worldwide. Understanding the mechanisms underlying drought adaptation in rice is essential for breeding drought-resilient genotypes. Advancements in molecular biology, genomics, and high-throughput phenotyping have uncovered complex networks of genetic, biochemical, and physiological responses that enable rice to withstand drought stress. This study examines the adverse effects of drought on rice and the mechanisms employed by rice to adapt to drought, utilizing an integrated molecular, biochemical, and physiological approach. It highlights the multifaceted nature of drought tolerance and its implications for developing resilient cultivars. Key mechanisms identified include osmotic adjustment, morphological changes, the expression of drought-responsive genes, the secretion of stress-related phytohormones, and the activation of antioxidant enzymes, all of which contribute to maintaining cellular homeostasis. Transcriptome and proteome analyses have expanded the catalogue of stress-responsive genes and proteins, particularly those involved in abscisic acid signalling, aquaporins, and late embryogenesis abundant proteins. The regulatory roles of transcription factors such as DREB, NAC, and MYB in modulating these stress-response pathways are emphasized. Furthermore, genome-wide association studies and quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping have identified genomic regions associated with drought tolerance, providing valuable targets for marker-assisted selection in breeding programs. The integration of these findings offers a roadmap for improving rice varieties with enhanced drought tolerance. Future research should focus on validating candidate genes, proteins, and QTLs across diverse genetic backgrounds to ensure stable productivity under water-limited conditions.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":100262,"journal":{"name":"Climate Smart Agriculture","volume":"2 4","pages":"Article 100080"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-08-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144926231","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Enhanced rock weathering aids to promote carbon sequestration and yield in China's agricultural fields","authors":"Tianran Sun ,&nbsp;Ke-Qing Xiao ,&nbsp;Liangshan Feng","doi":"10.1016/j.csag.2025.100072","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.csag.2025.100072","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":100262,"journal":{"name":"Climate Smart Agriculture","volume":"2 4","pages":"Article 100072"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-08-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144879888","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Impacts of climate change and water–fertilizer management on water balance dynamics in transplanting and direct–seeded paddy fields","authors":"Tangzhe Nie ,&nbsp;Peng Zhang ,&nbsp;Peng Chen ,&nbsp;Haijun Liu ,&nbsp;Lili Jiang ,&nbsp;Zhongyi Sun ,&nbsp;Shuai Yin ,&nbsp;Tianyi Wang ,&nbsp;Tiecheng Li ,&nbsp;Zhongxue Zhang","doi":"10.1016/j.csag.2025.100070","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.csag.2025.100070","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Climate change and alterations in water and fertilizer management exert profound impact on water balance of paddy fields, posing uncertainty regarding the sustainability of rice production. This study investigates the interplay between climate change and water and fertilizer management on the water balance of paddy fields, aiming to ensure sustainable water use and agricultural production security. Utilizing a 24<strong>-</strong>year experimental dataset (1978<strong>–</strong>2001), the study examines the effects of climate variability and management strategies on water balance parameters. The independent variables included in this study were water surface evaporation, effective rainfall, wind speed, sunlight duration, relative humidity, average temperature, maximum daily temperature, minimum daily temperature, minimum relative humidity, average water vapour pressure, accumulated temperature, water depth, and nitrogen application. Advanced statistical techniques, including grey relational analysis, path analysis, and principal component analysis, were employed to assess the impacts of independent variables on water consumption, evapotranspiration, percolation, transpiration, and evaporation. This research focuses on two cropping modes: water direct<strong>–</strong>seeded mode (WDM) and transplanting mode (PM). The grey relational analysis demonstrated that climate change, and water<strong>–</strong>fertilizer management, had differing effects on various water balance parameters. Path analysis revealed that temperature and humidity had the greatest direct and indirect effects. Principal component analysis grouped the variables and found that the significant factors under WDM influencing PC1 included maximum daily temperature, minimum daily temperature, nitrogen application, average temperature, wind speed, and relative humidity, which collectively accounted for 39.6 ​%. The significant factors affecting PC1 under PM included relative humidity, minimum relative humidity, effective rainfall, sunlight duration, and average water vapour pressure, which together accounted for 30.1 ​% of the total variation. The findings of this study indicated that water surface evaporation, accumulated temperature, and water depth played a relatively minor role in influencing the water balance of paddy fields across both cropping modes. This research contributes to the advancement of climate<strong>–</strong>smart agriculture, emphasizing the conservation of water resources while striving for optimal yields.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":100262,"journal":{"name":"Climate Smart Agriculture","volume":"2 3","pages":"Article 100070"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-08-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144840763","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}