Characterization and source identification of PM2.5 during intense haze episodes in an urban environment of Lahore

In the backdrop of persistent haze occurrences affecting Southeast Asia and Pakistan's environmental landscape, this study delves into an in-depth analysis of atmospheric Particulate Matter (PM2.5) during intense haze episodes prevalent in Lahore throughout October, November, and December 2019. Employing advanced analytical techniques encompassing Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) coupled with Energy-Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDX), X-ray Diffraction (XRD), and Raman Spectroscopy (RS), this investigation meticulously scrutinized PM2.5 samples. The findings showcased substantial variability in PM2.5 concentrations, peaking notably in December within the range of 43.2–301 μgm⁻³, averaging 168 ± 88.3 μgm⁻³, whereas lower concentrations ranging from 30.9 to 268 μgm⁻³, with an average of 106 ± 66.1 μgm⁻³, were observed in October. These concentrations displayed correlations with meteorological parameters, demonstrating a direct association with relative humidity and varying relationships with temperature and wind speed. The maximal PM2.5 concentrations aligned with lower temperatures (19.1 °C), while higher temperatures (26.1 °C) coincided with the lowest concentrations, illustrating distinct relationships with relative humidity percentages and wind speeds. Advanced spectroscopic analyses (RS and XRD) confirmed the presence of various minerals and elements within PM2.5 samples, encompassing calcite, calcium aluminosilicate, hematite, barite, quartz, gypsum, organic carbon, and nineteen elements identified by EDX. Morphological evaluations unveiled diverse particle shapes, from round, pointed, and irregular to rod-like, and agglomerate structures. SEM investigations delineated distinctive groups of anthropogenic and geogenic particles, emphasizing emission sources such as automobile emissions, crop residue burning, biomass burning, construction activities, soil dust, and industrial emissions. This comprehensive study lays the groundwork for source apportionment, vital for understanding consequential impacts on climate, visibility, and human health, fostering future investigations in this domain.