A review on advances in graphene and porphyrin-based electrochemical sensors for pollutant detection

Recent advances in sensing technologies address environmental pollution by enabling rapid and sensitive contaminant detection. Among these, porphyrin- and graphene-based electrochemical sensors stand out due to their high surface area, superior conductivity, and analyte sensitivity. Graphene, a two-dimensional carbon nanomaterial, and porphyrins, macrocyclic organic compounds with exceptional electrochemical properties, combine to create effective sensors for detecting various pollutants, including organic pollutants, biological contaminants, and heavy metals. Integrating graphene with porphyrins enhances electron transfer kinetics, selectivity, and stability, making them ideal for environmental monitoring applications. This paper discusses the principles of material selection, sensor design, and fabrication methods for these sensors. It highlights recent advancements in detecting specific pollutants, such as biological contaminants (viruses and bacteria), organic pollutants (pesticides, phenols, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons), and heavy metals (Pb, Hg, and Cd). Additionally, it addresses the challenges and future prospects of these sensors, focusing on improving sensitivity, selectivity, stability, and reproducibility, as well as their integration with portable and wearable devices for on-site monitoring. This review provides valuable insights into the current state and potential applications of porphyrin- and graphene-based electrochemical sensors in pollution management and environmental monitoring.