Transport and mixing observed in a pond: Description of wind-forced transport processes and quantification of mixing rates

Ponds are characterized by high biodiversity, intense biogeochemical cycling, and susceptibility to anthropogenic impacts. Yet few studies have quantified the water velocities responsible for vertical mixing or lateral transport in ponds. We used high-resolution observations of velocity to examine mixing and transport during summer in a 50-m-long, 2.7-m-deep temperate pond. Many observed transport and mixing processes resembled those found in larger stratified lakes. A surface mixed layer was observed, whose depth ranged between ~ 1 m at night and < 0.3 m during the day. Turbulence was usually sufficient to vertically mix the surface layer in 4–12 min, but no turbulence was observed in the hypolimnion. Persistent (2.5-h-averaged) currents usually flowed downwind near the surface and returned upwind near the mixed layer base. Surface currents were proportional to windspeed, with root-mean-squared speed of $8\times {10}^{-3}m{s}^{-1}$ (persistent hypolimnion currents were much weaker). Superposed on persistent currents were 30- to 100-min-period fluctuations resulting from internal seiches. These fluctuations were comparable in magnitude to more persistent currents in the mixed layer and dominated in the hypolimnion. Seiches did not advect particles far across the pond, but did contribute to production of mixed layer turbulence. Seiches also contributed to shear dispersion, which was sufficient to mix near-surface tracers across the pond in 2–4 d. Theory suggests that hypolimnion bottom boundary layers were laminar during the downslope phase of seiche motion, but became turbulent during the upslope phase as near-bed water flows created unstable stratification.