Annual improved maps to understand the complete evolution of 9 thousand lakes on the Tibetan plateau in 1991–2023

Rapid changes in the densely distributed lakes on the Tibetan Plateau (TP) reflect the responses of terrestrial water resources to climate change. Timely and accurate monitoring of lake dynamics is essential for formulating adaptation strategies to manage water and protect public facility safety sustainably. Interfered by the numerous glaciers and snow mountains and limited by the acquisition and computing capacities of massive satellite data, annual inventories of all the lakes ranging from mini to large on the TP are still lacking. Here, we annually mapped these lake areas using all the Landsat imagery, a robust algorithm for detecting surface water according to multiple spectral indices, and Google Earth Engine. We further proposed an effective approach for accurately identifying the glaciers, snow, and mountain shadows in satellite imagery by introducing the characteristics of image luminosity and terrain slope, and removing their data noise remained in the lake maps to generate an annual precise dataset (Lake_TP) of the approximately 9,000 lakes over 0.1 km² on the TP during 1991–2023. We revealed a rapid expansion of lakes with significant spatial heterogeneity, with 6,590 newly increased and 2,851 disappeared lakes found. The total lake areas (554.1 km²/yr) and numbers (77.9/yr) continuously and significantly increased in the period. The growth in lake numbers dominated by small lakes mainly happened before 2005, while the increases in lake areas dominated by large lakes lasted the whole period after 1995. The most significant increases in lake areas and numbers happened in the north of the Inner Basin and Yangtze, the hotspot of lake changes identified in the study. The dataset is expected to promote our understanding of the complete lake evolution process and the dynamic response of the cryosphere to the changing climate. The method proposed is also applicable to continuously monitoring the dynamics of lakes with higher accuracies in other alpine regions around the world. The Lake_TP dataset is publicly available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10686952 (Zhou et al. 2024).