Dose Individualisation of Antimicrobials from a Pharmacometric Standpoint: The Current Landscape.

Successful antimicrobial therapy depends on achieving optimal drug concentrations within individual patients. Inter-patient variability in pharmacokinetics (PK) and differences in pathogen susceptibility (reflected in the minimum inhibitory concentration, [MIC]) necessitate personalised approaches. Dose individualisation strategies aim to address this challenge, improving treatment outcomes and minimising the risk of toxicity and antimicrobial resistance. Therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM), with the application of population pharmacokinetic (popPK) models, enables model-informed precision dosing (MIPD). PopPK models mathematically describe drug behaviour across populations and can be combined with patient-specific TDM data to optimise dosing regimens. The integration of machine learning (ML) techniques promises to further enhance dose individualisation by identifying complex patterns within extensive datasets. Implementing these approaches involves challenges, including rigorous model selection and validation to ensure suitability for target populations. Understanding the relationship between drug exposure and clinical outcomes is crucial, as is striking a balance between model complexity and clinical usability. Additionally, regulatory compliance, outcome measurement, and practical considerations for software implementation will be addressed. Emerging technologies, such as real-time biosensors, hold the potential for revolutionising TDM by enabling continuous monitoring, immediate and frequent dose adjustments, and near patient testing. The ongoing integration of TDM, advanced modelling techniques, and ML within the evolving digital health care landscape offers a potential for enhancing antimicrobial therapy. Careful attention to model development, validation, and ethical considerations of the applied techniques is paramount for successfully optimising antimicrobial treatment for the individual patient.