Sustainable Hard Carbon as Anode Materials for Na-Ion Batteries: From Laboratory to Upscaling

Sodium-ion batteries (NIBs) are an alternative to lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), particularly in applications where cost, availability, and sustainability are more critical. Hard carbon is emerging as a promising anode material for NIBs, however, the scale up remains in developmental stages. In this study, we focus on the development and potential upscaling of sustainable hard carbon materials as anodes for NIBs. The synthesis of hard carbon starts from D-glucose, a scalable and environmentally benign precursor. A facile process combining hydrothermal carbonisation and subsequent pyrolysis at 1500 °C allows the hard carbon to become an industrially viable material. The resulting hard carbon demonstrates competitive performance metrics including a high initial Coulombic efficiency, high reversible capacity, long-term cycling stability, and rate capability. This study concludes with a discussion of the techno-economic analysis of adopting such sustainable materials in the battery industry, highlighting the potential for significant advancements in energy storage technologies.