Coal ash resources and potential for rare earth element production in the United States

The renewable energy industry is heavily reliant on rare earth elements, underscoring the need to develop resources and production. The objective of this work was to estimate coal ash resources and potential for extraction of rare earth elements using data for the US. Data on spatiotemporal variability in coal ash resources and disposition were compiled from various federal databases and rare earth elements levels in ash were compiled from the literature. Results show that ~ 52 gigatons (Gt) of coal were produced in the US (1950–2021). Power plants account for most of the coal use, particularly since 1980. Coal ash (5.3 Gt) represents a mean of 10% of coal by weight, ranging from 6% for subbituminous to 14% for lignite. About 70% of coal ash is potentially accessible for rare earth element extraction (1985–2021) and was disposed in landfills and ponds with the remaining coal ash used onsite or sold. Median values of total rare earth elements are much higher in ashes derived from the Appalachian Basin (median 431 mg/kg) than in the Illinois (282 mg/kg) or Powder River basins (264 mg/kg). Considering the market value of rare earth oxides, potentially accessible ash volumes, and percent rare earth element extraction (30% Appalachian and Illinois Basins; 70% Powder River Basin) results in an estimated $8.4 billion value. This study provides fundamental information on accessible coal ash resources in the US, linkages to coal sources, and preliminary estimates of rare earth element levels for future development within the US.