A comprehensive review on quantification of various biomarkers for the detection of oral carcinoma via electrochemical biosensors

Oral carcinoma ranks sixth among the most fatal carcinomas, projecting a threat to the entire world, affecting the head and neck region. It is predominant in men due to several causative agents like tobacco, drinking, and HPV (human papillomavirus). Despite various diagnostic methods and treatments available, high rates of morbidity and mortality pose a significant challenge for oncologists toward its early detection. Conventional methods of diagnosis include biopsy, histopathology, and ELISA, which are time-consuming and non-compliant towards the patient. Therefore, developing an accurate, sensitive, selective, and cost-effective biosensing technology is imperative for timely prognosis, diagnosis, and treatment. Various electrochemical biosensors have been developed to ensure rapid and non-invasive /minimally invasive diagnosis of oral carcinoma. Nanomaterials have been extensively researched and utilized to develop invasive, minimally invasive, and non-invasive platforms for biosensor fabrication in oral carcinoma detection. This review aims to summarize various electrochemical biosensors developed for detecting oral carcinoma including the advantages and limitations of nanomaterials (metals, metal oxides and hydroxides, carbon, etc.), and other nanocomposite materials based on electrochemical biosensors. Finally, it also addresses the current challenges and prospects for developing handheld devices for oral carcinoma detection.