Assessing the environmental impacts associated with China's battery minerals and technologies

Battery mineral production causes impacts on the environment and human health, which may increase the probability of supply restrictions imposed by exporting countries. As the largest battery producer, assessing the environmental impacts of China's battery-related minerals and technologies is crucial. However, studies that address the integrated issues of supply risks, vulnerability, and environmental impacts are relatively scarce for China. This study assesses China's battery materials and technologies’ environmental impacts. Results show that particulate pollution from nickel, cobalt, and manganese production exceeds CO₂ emissions, whereas the reverse is true for other battery materials. Battery technologies that involve nickel, cobalt, and manganese are predominantly affected by particulate pollution, causing over 62 % of human health damage. Each battery technology disproportionately affects the environment through a single element, with contribution values exceeding 46 %. In response, the study proposes strategies for a sustainable battery industry, including green energy systems, tailings backfilling, and circular economy measures.