Chaotic or crowded? The role of physical household environment in children's learning during the COVID-19 pandemic

Household chaos and crowding are known to significantly influence children's development; however, their relative contributions remain less clear. Furthermore, previous research has primarily focused on children's socioemotional and cognitive development, with limited attention to the learning process. This study explores the relation of household chaos and crowding with children's learning behaviors and emotions during the COVID-19 pandemic in Hong Kong. A sample of 262 parents and their primary school-aged children were recruited in Hong Kong. Both parents and children completed separate online questionnaires. Structural equation modeling revealed that while household chaos was correlated with crowding, it was specifically chaos, rather than crowding, that negatively related to children's learning behaviors. Importantly, the direct relationship between household chaos and children's learning behaviors remained significant even after accounting for family socioeconomic status (SES) and parents' involvement. This study enhances our understanding of the relation of physical environment with children's learning, emphasizing the distinct role of household chaos, separate from crowding and family SES.