Comprehensive review of sample preparation strategies for phthalate ester analysis in various real samples

Phthalate esters (PAEs), ubiquitous plasticizers in diverse consumer products, pose significant environmental and human health risks due to their persistence and endocrine-disrupting properties. Accurately determining PAEs in various environmental matrices is crucial for evaluating exposure levels, assessing risks, and implementing effective mitigation strategies. This review comprehensively examines sample preparation techniques for PAE analysis, focusing on methodologies. We categorize these techniques into traditional methods (solid phase extraction, liquid–liquid extraction, QuEChERS), advanced techniques (liquid phase microextraction, solid phase microextraction, and their modifications), and hybrid approaches combining multiple techniques. The strengths, limitations, and recent advancements of each method are thoroughly discussed. This compilation not only summarizes current knowledge but also highlights emerging trends and research gaps, providing valuable insights for future investigations. By fostering scientific progress and innovation in PAE analysis, we aim to support the development of robust analytical methods that contribute to environmental monitoring and risk assessment, ultimately safeguarding human health and the environment.