A multi-proxy approach to explore paleoenvironmental oscillations and chronostratigraphy of Thanetian carbonates in Eastern Tethys, Pakistan

This study is the first to incorporate geochemical analyses alongside traditional micropaleontological and sedimentological methods to redefine the chronostratigraphy, paleoenvironmental history and regional correlation of the Late Paleocene Lockhart Limestone from four distinct sections covering the entire Upper Indus Basin. Based on the age diagnostic foraminiferal species, we report SBZ3 to SBZ4 (Thanetian age) for the Lockhart Limestone in contrast to previous studies restricting it to SBZ3. The interpretation of eight distinct microfacies reveals a progressively shallowing upward sequence, indicating a dynamic depositional environment with varying energy levels and water depths ranging from inner, middle, to outer ramp settings. Mineralogically, the formation is predominantly composed of calcite, with quartz being the next significant component. Geochemical analyses, specifically the major oxide results, highlight that CaO is the primary constituent, while notable amounts of SiO₂, Fe₂O₃, Al₂O₃, and MgO are present. The low proportions of SiO₂ and Al₂O₃, combined with their negative correlation with CaO, and high Mg/Ca ratio suggest limited siliciclastic input during the precipitation of limestone that supports the shallow marine depositional environment inferred from the facies analysis. Trace elemental ratios, indicating predominantly oxic conditions, also align with the well-oxygenated waters of a shallow marine setting. Paleosalinity and paleotemperature indicators suggest normal marine and moderate paleotemperature conditions for limestone facies, with lagoonal conditions for shale facies, which is consistent with the interpreted shallow marine environment. The low Total Organic Carbon (TOC) content indicates the presence of type-III and IV organic matter, derived from recycling or continental sources, suggesting limited organic matter preservation in the depositional setting. The clay mineralogy suggests mainly humid conditions with occasional warm climates and alternating humid and arid periods. The deposition of the marine facies of Lockhart Limestone marks the transgression of the Eastern Tethys following a regressive episode that deposited the continental facies of the Hangu Formation, influenced by evolving paleoclimate and geomorphology under Paleo-Tethys tectonism.