The spatial scale and threshold effects of the relationship between landscape metrics and water quality in the Hutuo River Basin.

The impact of landscape patterns on river water quality has been widely studied; however, it remains unclear which spatial scale has the greatest impact on water quality. Here, we analyzed the spatial scale and threshold impacts of the link between landscape metrics and water quality in a large-scale basin using the random forest (RF) model and nonparametric change point analysis (nCPA) method. The concentrations of nitrate nitrogen (NO₃^--N) and total nitrogen (TN) were comparatively high in winter and relatively low during spring and summer, whereas the total phosphorus (TP) concentrations were comparatively low during winter and summer and relatively high during spring. The R² values of the RF models at the sub-basin scale were generally higher than those at the riparian zone scale. Moreover, the R² of water quality modelling at the riparian zone scale demonstrated a declining tendency from a riparian zone 30 m-210 m wide in the majority of seasons. This shows that landscape metrics at the subbasin scale provide a better explanation for the variability in water quality than those at the riparian zone scale in the Hutuo River Basin. The results of the RF model indicated that landscape metrics of landscape configuration were more important in determining water quality during winter, whereas landscape metrics of landscape composition or physiography were more important in determining water quality during summer. Furthermore, several abrupt thresholds were estimated by nCPA; for example, the summertime slope abrupt threshold was 10.79° in the relationship between the slope and NO₃^--N. This study contributes to the understanding of the debate regarding the scale effects of landscape patterns on water quality, emphasizing the significance of the basin area and offering managers valuable insights into the control of non-point source pollution.